Libraries of optimized cytochrome P450 enzymes and the optimized P450 enzymes

ABSTRACT

The present disclosure teaches that the recombination of homologous sequences of P450 enzymes, with the aid of SCHEMA to predict a resulting protein structure, is able to generate libraries of chimeras with significant functional diversity. Additionally, the members of these libraries demonstrate superior or unexpected new properties, which correlate with other factors that are observable in the library. Thus, the making of libraries of optimized P450 enzymes, the analysis of libraries to identify an optimized subset, and the optimized chimeras with improved or altered functionalities are all taught in the present disclosure.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This Application claims priority of U.S. Provisional Application 60/479,005 filed Jun. 17, 2003, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

GOVERNMENTAL RIGHTS

This invention was made with government support under Grant Number DAAD19-00-1-0391 awarded by the Army. The government has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to chimeric P450 proteins with new and improved functionalities, libraries of such proteins, methods of making such proteins and libraries, and methods of characterizing such proteins and libraries.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The cytochrome P450 superfamily of enzymes exhibits an impressive range of chemical activities and biological roles. Nature has exploited these diverse enzymes for everything from steroid biosynthesis to interspecies chemical warfare, protection of the organisms from toxic compounds, drug detoxification and utilization of new food sources. (Ortiz de Montellano, P. R., Cytochrome P450: Structure, Mechanism, and Biochemistry (New York: Plenum Press) (1995); Gotoh, O., Cytochrome P450, 2nd Edition, pp. 255-272 (1993); Gonzalez et al., Trends Genet, 6:182-186 (1990); Mauersberger et al., Z Alig Mikrobiol., 121:313-321 (1981); Porter et al., J. Biol. Chem., 266:13469-13472 (1991)).

While activities are diverse across the entire superfamily, individual members of the superfamily show a much narrower range of catalytic activities, usually catalyzing oxygen insertion into C—H bonds and substrate specificities. The heme prosthetic group recruited by the cytochrome P450s to effect monooxygenation is also used by these and other proteins for oxygen transport, electron transfer, reduction, dealkylation and dehalogenation. (Sono et al., Chem Rev 96, 2841-2888 (1996), Eichhorn et al., Heme Proteins, New York, N.Y.: Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc. (1988)).

Recent engineering efforts have demonstrated that P450s can acquire new or improved activities by point mutation (Cirino, P. C., and Arnold, F. H., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 42, 3299-3301 (2003); Li et al., Biochem Biophys. Acta., 1545:114-121 (2001); Glieder et al., Nat. Biotechnol. 20:1135-1139 (2002); Li et al., Chemistry, 6:1531-1536 (2000); Joo et al., Nature, 399:670-673 (1999); Appel et al., J. Biotechnol., 88:167-171 (2001)). However, making and characterizing each engineered P450 can be a laborious and time-consuming process. This is especially true when many of the mutations made, if done randomly, result in proteins with little or no function. This is even further exacerbated if one desires high levels of mutation. One possible way around this is to create libraries containing potentially numerous useful proteins by recombining different P450s either from nature or which have created in the laboratory. This could at least reduce the initial amount of work involved in creating the enzymes, although a substantial amount of work will still be required in testing these libraries.

However, creating protein libraries is not a simple matter, especially for P450s. P450s typically exhibit low sequence identity. Thus, annealing-based DNA -shuffling techniques are largely useless for creating highly diverse libraries of P450 chimeras or for creating the individual chimeric proteins (Stemmer, W P, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 91:10747-10751 (1994); Coco, W M. et al., Nat. Biotechnol., 19:354-359 (2001); Zhao, H. et al. (1998). Nat. Biotechnol., 16:258-261; Volkov, A A et al., Nucleic Acids Res., 27, e18 (1999); Kikuchi, M. et al., Gene, 243:133-137 (2000)). While there are some methods for making shuffled gene libraries independent of sequence homology, these approaches generate few crossovers and large numbers of inactive sequences due to insertions, deletions, and frameshifts, as well as disruptive crossover events. (Lutz, S. et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 98:11248-11253 (2001); Sieber, V. et al., Nat Biotechnol., 19:456-460 (2001)). Additionally, functional characterization of such libraries is extremely difficult without a selection method that can remove unfolded or nonfunctional sequences. Finally, as such libraries do not currently generally exist, the functional abilities, characteristics, benefits of, and method of characterizing such libraries currently remain unknown, although attempts have been made (Abecassis et al., Nucleic Acids Res 28:E88, (2000)).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present embodiments are directed to chimeric proteins and the creation of libraries of chimeric P450 enzymes with new or improved functionalities. In particular, the creation of chimeras through recombination and the use of the software program “SCHEMA” to characterize the functionality of the resulting chimeras. In one embodiment, the number of mutations in each P450 enzyme plays a role in determining the likelihood of altered functionality. Additionally, the resulting chimeric P450 proteins are also embodiments that are discussed and characterized.

One embodiment is a library of an optimized cytochrome P450 gene that encodes at least one optimized protein. The optimized protein has a first set of amino acid interactions and the sequences of the optimized proteins are derived from at least one parental cytochrome P450 gene. The parental cytochrome P450 gene encodes a protein having a second set of amino acid interactions. A protein or nucleic acid sequence will be optimized when the first set has fewer than 30 amino acid interactions disrupted, and when the protein has an enzymatic activity towards a substrate.

Another embodiment is a library of an optimized cytochrome P450 gene that encodes at least one optimized protein. The optimized protein has a first set of amino acid interactions and the sequences of the optimized proteins are derived from the recombination of at least one parental cytochrome P450 gene from a CYP102 family gene. The parental cytochrome P450 gene encodes a protein having a second set of amino acid interactions. A protein or nucleic acid sequence will be optimized when the first set has fewer than 30 amino acid interactions disrupted, and when the protein has an enzymatic activity towards a substrate.

Another embodiment is a cytochrome P450 chimera comprising a F helix portion from a CYP102A2 P450 protein and a G helix portion from a CYP102A1 P450 protein that has an enzymatic activity towards a substrate.

Another embodiment is a method of selecting a chimeric P450 enzyme for enzymatic activity towards a substrate. The steps involve, providing a first cytochrome P450 protein that has a first set of amino acid interactions, obtaining a chimeric P450 enzyme comprising a first segment from the first P450 protein and a second segment from a second P450 protein, determining a second set of amino acid interactions between pairs of amino acids in the chimeric P450 enzyme, determining the difference between the first set of amino acid interactions and the second set of amino acid interactions, and selecting a chimeric P450 enzyme that has lost less than 40 amino acid interactions in the second set compared to the interactions in the first set, and wherein said chimeric P450 enzyme has an increased activity towards said substrate.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a graph displaying the relationship between effective mutation and disruption (E) for cytochrome P450 chimeras and their functionality.

FIG. 2A is an illustration displaying the structural models of chimeric cytochrome P450s denoting the F and G-helix.

FIG. 2B is an illustration displaying the structural models of chimeric cytochrome P450s and demonstrating the mutated residues of interest.

FIG. 3 is an assembly of CO spectra for CYP102A1-h, CYP102A2-h and their heme domain chimeras.

FIG. 4 is a graph displaying the substrate activity profiles of CYP102A1, CYP102A2 and the folded chimeras.

FIG. 5 is a graph displaying a theoretical library analysis.

FIG. 6 is a graph displaying various theoretical libraries.

FIG. 7 is a graph displaying various theoretical libraries and a box showing those libraries with an average E value below 32.6±9.8

FIG. 8 is an illustration displaying the construction of a seven crossover library.

FIG. 9 is a bar chart displaying the relative amounts of A1, A2, and A3 in the chimeras of the library.

FIG. 10 is a bar graph showing the Enrichment of folded P450s at low E.

FIG. 11A is a bar graph displaying the relative amounts of activity of the parents and the chimeras

FIG. 11B is an illustration showing three substrates of the parents.

FIG. 11C is an illustration showing two novel substrates of the chimeras.

FIG. 12A is a graph displaying the distribution of functional properties for sequenced chimeric cytochromes P450, in particular with regard to the mutation number.

FIG. 12B is a graph displaying the distribution of functional properties for sequenced chimeric cytochromes P450, in particular with regard to the disruption number.

FIG. 13 is a graph displaying the dependence of SCHEMA calculations based on cutoff distances used.

FIG. 14A is a HPLC trace of a bioconversion containing chimera C4H2 and chlorzoxazone.

FIG. 14B is a graph displaying the linear increase in product as the amount of enzyme increases as measured by the 4-aminoantipyrine assay at 500 nm. This is the same bioconversion that is occurring in FIG. 14A.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT

Libraries generated by recombination of homologous proteins can be rich in folded proteins if the parent proteins are highly similar or if appropriate structural information is incorporated in the library design. (Hansson et al. J. Mol. Biol. 287:265-276, (1999), Moore et al., J. Mol. Biol. 272:336-347, (1997), Voigt et al., Nat. Struct. Biol. 9:553-558 (2002), Meyer et al., Prot. Sci. (2003)). However, how functional diversity of chimeras is related to the level of sequence diversity of the parents in such libraries was previously unknown.

Embodiments of the invention relate to the discovery that recombination of functionally-similar enzymes yielded functionally-diverse chimeras. In addition, it was also discovered that even if functionally-similar parent enzymes do not share an overly similar primary structure, a large percentage of chimeric proteins derived from the parent enzymes were still able to fold and properly function. Thus, one embodiment is a method of creating chimeric proteins, including P450 enzymes, through the recombination of functionally similar proteins with low sequence identity. In another embodiment, a method for the recombination of functionally dissimilar proteins is contemplated. As appreciated by one of skill in the art, other benefits may be obtained by recombining functionally dissimilar proteins using the methods disclosed herein.

One embodiment of the invention is a method of selecting chimeras in recombinant libraries of P450 enzymes. In this embodiment, the chimeras are created by determining the number of disruptions of amino acid residue interactions that would result from combining two or more parental amino acid segments together to create a chimera. One measure of the number of disruptions of amino acid residues in a chimera is an “E value”. This value is employed to describe the relative number of contacts, or amino acid interactions, broken in a potential chimera. The E value can reveal how likely a chimeric protein, such as a P450 enzyme, will properly fold, and how likely it is to be active. Thus, by using such a value, one can determine potential crossover points for creating a recombinant library, or protein, wherein the library members have a high likelihood of properly functioning. In one embodiment, the computational algorithm SCHEMA is used to predict E values of protein segments of parent proteins that can be used to design libraries that are rich in folded and functional proteins.

SCHEMA is a computational algorithm that can estimate the disruption caused by swapping different fragments among structurally-similar proteins. By using this generated value, one can identify optimal crossover locations for making libraries by recombination. (Voigt, C A et al., Nat Struct Biol 9, 553-558 (2002); Meyer et al., Prot. Sci., (2003)). The SCHEMA algorithm uses the 3D structure of one of the parent proteins to identify pairs of amino acids that interact and form contacts or interactions this is commonly called a ‘contact diagram’ (e.g., residues within a cutoff distance of 4.5 Å) and determines the net number of contacts or interactions broken when a chimeric protein inherits portions of its sequence from different parents. As described above, this value is termed an “E value”. For each interaction or contact that is calculated to be broken, the E value increases by one point. Thus, the higher the E value, the more interactions or contacts that are broken within a given chimera. In one embodiment the number and nature of contacts for a parent is determined through a contact matrix (for example, defined as a set of residues within a certain distance from a given residue within its structure). For each amino acid that is changed in the chimera, all associated contacts with that residue are presumed disrupted. The number of these disrupted contacts are then summed to obtain an E value for the chimera.

Another embodiment of the invention employs an “m value”, which is a calculated value describing the number of mutations present in the chimera in comparison to the original parental proteins. The m value is an indicator of whether or not the resulting chimera will have a novel or improved function. Typically, chimeras with higher m values are more likely to have a novel function in comparison to their parent since they contain a relatively higher number of amino acid mutations. Similarly, chimeras with a lower m value have a greater likelihood of displaying similar, but possibly improved activity. Accordingly, one can select chimeras that have a relatively high m value in order to identify those chimeras with improved function. In one embodiment, an m value of less than about 15 or 16 is an accurate indicator that the chimera or library will have novel substrate or functional activity. In another embodiment, when the E value is less than 30, a m value of 33 will also be considered low. For example, 30-25, 25-20, 20-15, 15-10, 10-5, 5-0. Thus, this value can depend on the E value to some extent. In one embodiment, a m value greater than 15 or 16 is considered a high value and thus likely to exhibit novel functionality, especially towards novel substrates. For example, 16-17, 17-20, 20-25, 25-30, 30-40, 40-50, 50-60, 70-90, or more. In another embodiment, a m value greater than 30 or 33 is considered high. As will one of skill in the art will appreciate, the higher or lower the m number, the greater the likelihood that a novel or improved function will be present.

In one embodiment, the E value and the m value are used together, allowing one to predict, and thus select, chimeric proteins having desired characteristics from a protein library. In one embodiment, the chimeric proteins in the library are selected to be enzymes that are very likely to fold and thus function properly. In addition, these enzymes would also be very likely to display novel activities or enhanced activity on traditional substrates. Enzymes or libraries selected or made through the manipulation of these values are termed “optimized.”

In one embodiment, libraries of P450 chimeras are selected based on heightened concentrations of chimeras with the desired E and m values. In one embodiment, a library of chimeras with an E value of less than 30 (E₃₀) and an m value of greater than 30 (m₃₀) is desired, although greater or lesser values are contemplated. Thus, optimized libraries, which are libraries with a significant increase in the number of functional or novel functional enzymes, can be created or selected from the use of one or both of these values. For example, libraries with chimeras that have an average E value that is low, will be preferred over libraries with chimeras that have an average E value that is higher. Similarly, a library with m values that are higher than average may be preferred over libraries with average m values.

As described in detail below, P450 chimeras were created and characterized through this process, and found to exhibit significant functional diversity, including the ability to hydroxylate substrates not accepted by either parent enzyme. The chimeras may be useful for chemical synthesis, development of biomaterials, bioremediation, or protein-based therapeutics.

Embodiments further include methods to select those chimeras in a library that have the greatest likelihood of folding and being active. In one embodiment, numerous P450 chimeras are created by computer, e.g., in silico, and then the calculated E value for each predicted chimeric P450 enzyme is determined through the use of a program such as SCHEMA. By examining the E values of the predicted chimeras, one can identify and select from a library comprising recombinant mutants those chimeras that have a higher likelihood of folding and improved enzymatic activity compared to randomly created or selected chimeras. In one embodiment, any algorithm based on pair-wise interactions could be used to determine if a contact is broken (for example, see Saraf, et al., FamClash: a method for ranking the activity of engineered enzymes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101, 4142-4147 (2004); Roy et al., Centripetal modules and ancient introns. Gene 238, 85-91 (1999); Fischer, K. F., and Marqusee, S. A rapid test for identification of autonomous folding units in proteins. J Mol Biol 302, 701-712. (2000); Dahiyat, B. I., and Mayo, S. L. Protein design automation. Protein Sci 5, 895-903 (1996)).

Embodiments of the invention further include libraries, and the isolated proteins comprising the libraries, of chimeras from a recombination of particular cytochrome P450 enzymes. For example, libraries of chimeras created from crossovers or mutations of P40 enzymes CYP102A1 and CYP102A2 (63% amino acid identity) can be created. As discussed below, the selection of where CYP102A1 and CYP102A2 should be recombined (i.e., a crossover point) can be guided by the E values that would result from such potential crossovers.

One embodiment of the invention relates to seventeen double-crossover chimeras that were constructed from the heme domains of a P450 CYP102A1 and CYP102A2In one embodiment, the CYP102A 1 and CYP102A2 combined proteins comprise a library, and the library, when combined with an E value, is optimized as the structural and functional characteristics of the proteins are predicted. Almost all of the chimeras predicted to have limited structural disruption (e.g., a disruption that allows for the protein to still fold), via a SCHEMA determined substantially low E value (e.g., less than 30), were shown to be folded P450s, and the vast majority were found to be catalytically active, as described below. In addition these chimeras exhibited significant functional diversity. Chimeras displayed altered substrate specificity profiles, a wide range in thermostabilities, up to a 40-fold increase in peroxidase activity, and the ability to hydroxylate at least one substrate that had no demonstrated detectable activity from either parent.

Embodiments further include libraries of CYP102A1 and CYP102A2 chimeras with crossovers at amino acid positions 363, 403, 164, 256, 284, 341, 168, 197, 117, 194, 49, 140, 69, 299, 45, 73, 190, 335, 42, 135, 64, 256, 276, and 365. One or all of the crossovers may exist in each of the chimeras. Embodiments further include libraries of CYP102A1, CYP102A2, and CYP102A3 chimeras with crossovers at amino acid positions 64, 122, 166, 216, 268, 328, 404. One or all of the crossovers may exist in each of the chimeras. For example, a library of double crossovers may include all combinations of the three parents crossed over at positions 64 and 122. Alternatively, a library of triple crossovers may include examples of all three parents crossed over at positions 64, 122, and 166. Alternatively, as described in more detail below, a library of seven crossovers will allow crossovers to occur at each of the seven listed positions. As discussed herein, any number of crossovers is possible; for example, 1-5, 5-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-50, 50-70, 70-90, 90-150, or more crossovers. In one embodiment, the library contains some chimeras with one crossover and some with more than one crossover; thus, chimeras with various numbers of crossovers can exist in a single library. In one embodiment regions of crossover interest are defined. Thus, if residue 64 is selected for a crossover position, residues flanking this residue may also be crossover positions, for example, 63, 60, 65, and 71. Thus, in one embodiment, not only are particular crossover points selected, or used, but regions for crossovers are selected. Generally, regions will be smaller than 30 residues on each side of the position identified, e.g., for position 64, a region may encompass 34-94; however, regions may vary depending upon the particular protein. In one embodiment, the size of the region is 30-25, 25-20, 20-15, 15-10, 10, 10-5, 5-1 residues on either side of the crossover point.

Definitions:

Unless defined otherwise herein, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Singleton et al. (2001) Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, third edition, John Wiley and Sons (New York), and Hale and Marham (1991) The Harper Collins Dictionary of Biology, Harper Perennial, N.Y. provides one of skill with a general dictionary of many of the terms used in this invention. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, the preferred methods and materials are described. For purposes of the present invention, the following terms are defined below.

Amino acids may be referred to herein by either their commonly known three letter symbols or by the one-letter symbols recommended by the IUPAC-IUB Biochemical Nomenclature Commission. Nucleotides, likewise, may be referred to by their commonly accepted single-letter codes.

The term “identical” in the context of two nucleic acid or polypeptide sequences refers to the residues in the two sequences that are the same when aligned for maximum correspondence over a specified comparison window. When percentage of sequence identity is used in reference to proteins or peptides it is recognized that residue positions which are not identical often differ by conservative amino acid substitutions, where amino acid residues are substituted for other amino acid residues with similar chemical properties (e.g., charge or hydrophobicity) and therefore do not change the functional properties of the molecule. Where sequences differ in conservative substitutions, the percent sequence identity may be adjusted upwards to correct for the conservative nature of the substitution. When such “corrections” are made, this is can be referred to as sequence similarity. Means for making this adjustment are well-known to those of skill in the art. Typically this involves scoring a conservative substitution as a partial rather than a full mismatch, thereby increasing the percentage sequence identity. Thus, for example, where an identical amino acid is given a score of 1 and a non-conservative substitution is given a score of zero, a conservative substitution is given a score between zero and 1. The scoring of conservative substitutions is calculated, e.g., according to the algorithm of Meyers and Miller, Computer Applic. Biol. Sci., 4: 11-17 (1988) e.g., as implemented in the program PC/GENE (Intelligenetics, Mountain View, Calif., USA).

An “E” value is a term denoting the number of amino acid interactions (or contacts) that are predicted to be disrupted in a particular chimera. In one embodiment, this number is calculated through the use of SCHEMA and a disruption is counted anytime two points that were interacting, are now more than a certain, set, distance apart, for example, greater than 4.5 angstroms apart. In one embodiment this is achieved through a contact matrix. Each residue within a certain distance of each residue of a parent protein will be included as a contact or interaction in the parent. Then, each amino acid that is changed in the chimera will result in the breaking of those contacts that were associated with that amino acid. Thus, in this embodiment, the E value is the sum of those contacts that are broken, as defined as those contacts for each changed amino acid residue. As appreciated by one of skill in the art, other algorithms based on pair-wise interactions may be used. As discussed below, other distances may also be used. In one embodiment, other systems or programs may be used to establish changes in amino acid interaction number. In one embodiment, any measure of structural disruption may be used. In one embodiment, the parent structure that is used to compare to the predicted structure is a known or solved structure, for example, the CYP102A1 structure. In another embodiment, a predicted structure of a parent is used to determine disruptions in a resulting chimera from that parent. In one embodiment, the E value may be weighted according to the importance of the particular residue.

A “m” value is the number of mutations that the resulting chimera has, in relation to the closest parent. In other words, it is the number of residues that is different between the closest related parent and the chimera. In one embodiment, this is any change from identity. In another embodiment, this is any change from amino acid similarity. The possible ranges for m will depend upon the nature of the chimera and can be determined by one of skill in the art. For example, for all possible double-crossover chimeras the range of m values is 1 to 67 (although the number can be 0 if measured at the nucleotide level). However, in one embodiment, for a 7-crossover library, the range could be 7 to 103. The minimum number of mutations can be set to any number desired, for example, 1-2, 2-4, 4-6, 6-8, 8-10, 10-15, 15-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-60, 60-70, 70-90, 90-100, or more. Similarly, the maximum number of mutations in any library can also be set to any number—limited only by the maximum number of mutations achievable through the recombination of the parents. Thus, for example, the maximum number of mutants may be 1-2, 2-4, 4-6, 6-8, 8-10, 10-15, 15-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-60, 60-70, 70-90, 90-100, 100-150, 150-200, 200-300, or more.

A chimera is a combination of at least two segments of at least two different parent proteins. As appreciated by one of skill in the art, the segments need not actually come from each of the parents, as it is the particular sequence that is relevant, and not the physical nucleic acids themselves. A chimeric P450 will have at least two segments from two different parent P450s. The two segments are connected so as to result in a new P450. In other words, a protein will not be a chimera if it has the identical sequence of either one of the parents. Chimeras can be created from two or more P450 enzymes or a suitable equivalent of a P450 enzyme. A chimeric protein can comprise more than two segments from two different parent proteins. For example, there may be 2, 3, 4, 5-10, 10-20, or more parents for each final chimera or library of chimeras. The segment of each parent enzyme can be very short or very long, the segments can range in length of contiguous amino acids from 1 to the entire length of the P450 protein. In one embodiment, the minimum length is 10 amino acids. In one embodiment, a single crossover point is defined for two parents. The crossover point defines where one parent's amino acid segment will stop and where the next parents amino acid segment will start. Thus, a simple chimera would only have one crossover point where the segment before that crossover point would belong to one parent and the segment after that crossover point would belong to the second parent. In one embodiment, the chimera has more than one crossover point. For example, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11-30, or more crossover points. How these crossover points are named and defined are both discussed below. In an embodiment where there are two crossover points and two parents, there will be a first contiguous segment from a first parent, followed by a second contiguous segment from a second parent, followed by a third contiguous segment from the first parent. Contiguous is meant to denote that there is nothing of significance interrupting the segments. These contiguous fragments are connected to form a contiguous amino acid sequence. For example, a P450 chimera from CYP102A1 (hereinafter “A1”) and CYP102A2 (hereinafter “A2”), with two crossovers at 100 and 150, could have the first 100 amino acids from A1, followed by the next 50 from A2, followed by the remainder of the amino acids from A1, all connected in one contiguous amino acid chain. Alternatively, the P450 chimera could have the first 100 amino acids from A2, the next 50 from A1 and the remainder followed by A2. As appreciated by one of skill in the art, variants of chimeras exist as well as the exact sequences. Thus, not 100% of each segment need be present in the final chimera if it is a variant chimera. The amount that may be altered, either through additional residues or removal or alteration of residues will be defined as the term variant is defined. Of course, as understood by one of skill in the art, the above discussion applies not only to amino acids but also nucleic acids which encode for the amino acids.

A library is “optimized” when there is a high number of proteins in the library that have a high likelihood of folding, an increased degree of activity or altered activity, such as activity on a new substrate. A protein that is in this library is considered to be an optimized protein or enzyme. In one embodiment, a library is optimized when the percent of folded proteins in the library is greater than the percent of folded proteins in a randomly generated library. In another embodiment, the percent of folded proteins in an optimized library is at least 1-5, 5-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-50, 50-70, 70-90, 100-110, 110-200, 200-400, or more, percent greater than a library randomly generated. In one embodiment, a library is optimized when the E value of the members of the library have an average value of less than 40 as determined through a SCHEMA analysis, for example, 40-35, 35-30, 30-25, 25-20, 20-15, 15-10, 10-5, 5-0.

In an alternative embodiment, a library is optimized when an E value is assigned to the members of a library. Thus, not all or a set percentage of the members of the library need to be folded or display improved or alternative functionalities.

One method of characterizing optimized libraries is through the use of a F₃₀ value. The F stands for “folded” and the “30” denotes that one is examining the percent folded as defined by those proteins with an E value of 30 or less, which, as described below, is an indicator that the protein will properly fold. Thus, if a library has a F₃₀ of 75%, it means that 75% of the proteins in the library are predicted to fold because their E value is less than 30. A <m> value is the number of mutations that a chimera has compared to its closest parent. Similarly, a <m>₃₀ shows the average level of mutation in chimeras with an E of <30. Thus, a high m₃₀ would suggest that there are a large number of mutations in chimeras, where the chimeras have an E value less than 30.

The proteins of the present invention further include “conservative amino acid substitution variants” (i.e., conservative) of the proteins herein described. As used herein, a conservative variant refers to at least one alteration in the amino acid sequence that does not adversely affect the biological functions of the protein. A substitution, insertion or deletion is said to adversely affect the protein when the altered sequence prevents or disrupts a biological function associated with the protein. For example, the overall charge, structure or hydrophobic-hydrophilic properties of the protein can be altered without adversely affecting a biological activity. Accordingly, the amino acid sequence can often be altered, for example to render the peptide more hydrophobic or hydrophilic, without adversely affecting the biological activities of the protein.

The proteins of the present invention are preferably in isolated form. As used herein, a protein is said to be isolated when physical, mechanical or chemical methods are employed to remove the protein from cellular constituents that are normally associated with the protein. A skilled artisan can readily employ standard purification methods to obtain an isolated protein.

Homology or identity at the amino acid or nucleotide level is determined by BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) and by ClustalW analysis using the algorithm employed by the programs blastp, blastn, blastx, tblastn and tblastx (Karlin et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87, 2264-2268 (1990); Thompson et al., Nucleic Acids Res 22,4673-4680 (1994); and Altschul, J. Mol. Evol. 36, 290-300 (1993), fully incorporated by reference) which are tailored for sequence similarity searching. The approach used by the BLAST program is to first consider similar segments between a query sequence and a database sequence, then to evaluate the statistical significance of all matches that are identified and finally to summarize only those matches which satisfy a preselected threshold of significance. For a discussion of basic issues in similarity searching of sequence databases (see Altschul et al., (1994) Nature Genetics 6, 119-129 which is fully incorporated by reference). The search parameters for histogram, descriptions, alignments, expect (i.e., the statistical significance threshold for reporting matches against database sequences), cutoff, matrix and filter are at the default settings. The default scoring matrix used by blastp, blastx, tblastn, and tblastx is the BLOSUM62 matrix (Henikoff et al., (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 10915-10919, fully incorporated by reference). For blastn, the scoring matrix is set by the ratios of M (i.e., the reward score for a pair of matching residues) to N (i.e., the penalty score for mismatching residues), wherein the default values for M and N are 5 and −4, respectively.

“Stringent conditions” are those that (1) employ low ionic strength and high temperature for washing, for example, 0.5 M sodium phosphate buffer at pH 7.2, 1 mM EDTA at pH 8.0 in 7% SDS at either 65° C. or 55° C., or (2) employ during hybridization a denaturing agent such as formamide, for example, 50% formamide with 0.1% bovine serum albumin, 0.1% Ficoll, 0.1% polyvinylpyrrolidone, 0.05 M sodium phosphate buffer at pH 6.5 with 0.75 M NaCl, 0.075 M sodium citrate at 42° C. Another example is use of 50% formamide, 5.times.SSC (0.75 M NaCl, 0.075 M sodium citrate), 50 mM sodium phosphate at pH 6.8, 0.1% sodium pyrophosphate, 5× Denhardt's solution, sonicated salmon sperm DNA (50 μg/ml), 0.1% SDS and 10% dextran sulfate at 55° C., with washes at 55° C. in 0.2×.SSC and 0.1% SDS. A skilled artisan can readily determine and vary the stringency conditions appropriately to obtain a clear and detectable hybridization signal.

As used herein, a nucleic acid molecule is said to be “isolated” when the nucleic acid molecule is substantially separated from contaminant nucleic acid encoding other polypeptides from the source of nucleic acid.

Embodiments of the present invention further include fragments of any one of the encoding nucleic acids molecules. As used herein, a fragment of an encoding nucleic acid molecule refers to a small portion of the entire protein coding sequence. The size of the fragment will be determined by the intended use. For example, if the fragment is chosen so as to encode an active portion of the protein, the fragment will need to be large enough to encode the functional region(s) of the protein.

The encoding nucleic acid molecules of the present invention may further be modified so as to contain a detectable label for diagnostic and probe purposes. A variety of such labels are known in the art and can readily be employed with the encoding molecules herein described. Suitable labels include, but are not limited to, fluorescent-labeled, biotin -labeled, radio-labeled nucleotides and the like. A skilled artisan can employ any of the art known labels to obtain a labeled encoding nucleic acid molecule.

A. Selection of Optiniized P450 Chimeras through Recombination and Analysis

In order to verify that E and m values were accurate indicators for folding, functionality and novel functionality, a library of chimeric P450 enzymes was created from two parent P450s. CYP102A1 and CYP102A2, homologs from Bacillus megaterium and Bacillus subtilis, respectively were selected as parents from which to construct the chimeras. (Narhi et al., Biochem Biophys Res Commun 116, 851-858 (1983); Gustafsson et al., Biochemistry 43:5474-5487 (2004)). Their 64% nucleotide identity places them below the limits for effective recombination using annealing-based (DNA shuffling) methods. (SEQ ID NO: 1 and SEQ ID NO: 3 for nucleic acids sequences, and SEQ ID NO: 2 and SEQ ID NO: 4 for amino acid sequences respectively). It is generally acknowledged that for effective recombination (effective recombination means non-biased crossover locations, low fraction of parental sequences, full assembled sequences, limited stop codons, insertions and deletions) the limit is 70% (Lutz, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:11248-11253 (2001); and Neylon, C., Nucleic Acids Res 32:1448-1459 (2004)).

These soluble fusion proteins, consisting of a catalytic heme-domain and an FAD- and FMN-containing NADPH reductase require dioxygen and an NADPH cofactor to catalyze substrate hydroxylation. ((Munro et al., Trends Biochem Sci 27, 250-257 (2002)). However, the heme domain can utilize hydrogen peroxide via the ‘peroxide shunt’ pathway for catalysis. While this ‘peroxygenase’ activity is low in CYP102 μl, it is enhanced by the amino acid substitution F87A; the equivalent F88A mutation in CYP102A2 has a similar effect. (Li et al., FEBS Lett 508, 249-252 (2001); Cirino et al., Advanced Synthesis & Catalysis 344, 932-937 (2002)). The P450 chimeras were constructed from the genes for the heme domains of CYP102A1 with the F87A mutation and CYP102A2 with the F88A mutation. With these mutations, one can use the peroxygenase activity of the heme domain to explore the substrate specificities of the chimeras, without having to supply the reductase or cofactor.

As a test model, all possible sequences for the double crossover combinations of CYP102A1 and CYP102A2 were determined, with the limitation that any crossover result in an insert, or amino acid distance between crossovers, of at least 10 amino acids in length. Following this, E values and m values (mutation number) were determined for each chimera. The distribution in the levels of disruption (E) and effective mutation (m) for this population of chimeras can be seen in FIG. 1. The E value was determined through the use of SCHEMA. In one embodiment any type of P450 is contemplated for recombination and the production of a chimera. In one embodiment, chimeric P450s are produced from members of the CYP102 family. In another embodiment, chimeric P450s are produced from the CYP102A, family. In another embodiment, the parents selected for recombination are CYP102A1, A2, and A3.

The E values for the examples described below were calculated as any disruptions that resulted in the chimera as compared to the CYP102A1 parent, as the crystal structure of this parent has been solved. In one embodiment the cutoff distance is selected from the following: 0-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5, 5-6, and 6-10 Å.

By comparing SCHEMA disruption predictions to functional beta-lactamases selected from a large library of chimeric sequences, it was found that sequences retaining the parental protein fold and function tend to have low E values. (Meyer et al., Prot. Sci., (2003)). In fact, the probability of the beta-lactamses retaining function decreased exponentially as E increased. Based on the structure of the parent proteins, SCHEMA determines which residues are interacting, defined as those residues within a cutoff distance, and generates a contact a matrix. When recombining two parents, for example, the contacts are scaled by the sequence identity of the parents being recombined, i.e., all contacts which cannot be broken by recombination are removed from the matrix. E is determined by counting the number of contacts broken when a chimeric protein inherits portions of its sequence from different parents.

The effective levels of mutation “m” in one embodiment is the Hamming distance from the closest parent. As is known, the Hamming distance is a measure of the difference between two strings, such as sequences. The distance is expressed by the number of characters that need to be changed to obtain one string from the other.

E values for the different chimeras were computed using the high-resolution structure for CYP102A1 with palmitoglycine bound in the active site (Haines et al., Biochemistry 40, 13456-13465 (2001)). Because previous studies have shown that substrate binding causes a large conformational change in CYP102A 1, E was also calculated using the substrate-free CYP102A1 structure. (Paulsen et al., Proteins 21, 237-243 (1995); Modi et al., Nat Struct Biol 3, 414-417 (1996); Li et al., Nat Struct Biol 4, 140-146, (1997), Ravichandran et al., Science 261,731-736 (1993)). As shown in Table 1, similar E values were obtained for the two calculations. Because both parents contain the same heme cofactor, contacts between the heme and the protein will not be broken upon recombination, at least in this particular model. It is assumed that chimeras retain parental heme contacts, and heme is not included in the calculation of the E value. In one embodiment, these contacts are allowed to be broken. This could be achieved by altering the particular structural data, or by performing recombination with a protein that has such different connection between the heme and the protein, as well as other methods appreciated by one of skill in the art.

TABLE 1 Designed CYP102A1-CYP102A1 Chimeric P450s E (sub- E (sub- strate- strate- Folded (λ T^(m) Peroxidase Chimera^(a) bound)^(b) bound)^(b) m^(c) max)^(d) (° C.) activity^(f) CYP102A1 — — — yes (448) 55 2.6 CYP102A2 — — — yes (449) 44 0.4 364-403  2  2 13 yes (449) 51 1 165-256  7  7 36 yes (449) 48 16.1 165-256M  [7]  [7] 36 yes (448) 50 3.5 285-341 10  9 19 yes (448) 53 2.1 191-335 12 12 50 yes (449) 40 N.D. 169-197 12 10 11 yes (449) 52 100.3 169-197M [12] [10] 11 yes (449) 43 0.3 65-256 15 13 61 yes (447) 36 N.D. 118-194 20 19 20 yes (449) 47 34.3 70-299 21 19 70 yes (448) 42 0.8 46-73 27 30 16 yes (448) 55 6.8 277-365 27 28 33 yes (421) 39 N.D. 43-135 34 38 33 yes (448) 53 6.8 186-365 34 35 65 no — N.D. 186-365M [34] [35] 65 no — N.D. 50-140 38 39 32 yes (448) 52 10.4 345-448 42 43 34 no — N.D. ^(a)Chimera names correspond to the first and last residue of CYP102A2 inserted into CYP102A1 according to the numbering of CYP102A1. “M” indicates mirror chimeras were CYP102A2 is inserted into CYP102A2. ^(b)SCHEMA-calculated disruption using substrate-bound structure (1JPZ) and substrate-free structure (2HPD). Brackets [ ] indicate assumed disruption for mirror chimeras (due to lack of crystal structure of CYP102A2). ^(c)Effective level of mutation, relative to closest parent. ^(d)Folding as assayed by reduced CO difference spectroscopy. λmax for Soret band is reported. ^(f)Values report in nmol product/nmol P450/min. Activities <0.2 were not detectable (N.D.).

In one embodiment, the E values used for characterization and analysis are the substrate free E values. In another embodiment, the E values used are the substrate bound E values. In yet another embodiment, the E values are a derived from a weighted average of the bound and unbound E values. In situations in which a protein exists in multiple states, conformations, or binds to different substrates, each conformation may be accorded its own appropriate E value or they may all be averaged together. In one embodiment, an appropriate E value may be selected based on the desired activity and structure associated with that activity. Thus, E values determined for a protein in a conformation that is similar to the desired conformation of the protein, may be selected over other possible E values for the protein.

Once a particular set of crossover positions has been selected, it is useful to select a subset of the possible chimeras so that the chimeric sequences can be made and tested (for two parents, this is 2³=8 sequences, including the parental ones). As appreciated by one of skill in the art, in generating large libraries that incorporate multiple crossovers, reducing disruption becomes an important design criterion. For example, FIG. 5 shows an in silico analysis of 5,000 different libraries in which 10 randomly-selected crossovers were allowed between CYP102A1 and CYP102A2, with the crossover positions chosen at random. Each library contains 2¹¹=2,048 different chimeric sequences. For each library, two values were calculated, i) the fraction that is predicted to fold (F₃₀=fraction of sequences with E≦30) and ii) the average level of effective mutation in these folded chimeras (<m>₃₀=average level of effective mutation in those chimeras with an E less than/equal to 30). The data demonstrates that the choice of crossover points can dramatically affect these values and the distribution and nature of functional proteins in the library.

In one embodiment, the library is constructed from at least two parent proteins. For example, 3, 4, 5, 6-10, 10-50, or more proteins may be used as starting parents. Additionally, the minimum size of each crossover point and the frequency of the crossovers may also be altered. In one embodiment, the minimum size of a crossover section is limited to what is experimentally practicable through recombination. In another embodiment, the minimum size of the crossover section is selected from the following: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11-15, 15-20, 20-30, or more amino acids. The number of times that a crossover occurs can also be a factor to consider. In one embodiment, the number of times there is a crossover in a chimera is selected from the following: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11-15, 15-20, 21-30, 31-50, and 50-100. The advantage of increasing the parent number, shrinking the size of the crossover segment, or increasing the number of times that a crossover may occur is that these will increase diversity of the final chimera. One disadvantage is that such calculations will require more computational resources. Another disadvantage is it increases the library size so one may not find a protein with the properties one desires. As such, the selection of these possible variables will depend upon how much diversity one wishes in the final library. As appreciated by one of skill in the art, these values, and the importance of selecting these values, will also depend, to some extent, upon the amount of sequence similarity between the parents. For example, when two parents are very dissimilar, there is a greater chance of having a library of diverse chimeras and so the number or crossovers may be decreased and the size of the crossovers may be increased accordingly. Another factor in deciding the above variable is the desired size of the final library of chimeras. If a large library is desired, then the values can be adjusted accordingly, likewise, if a smaller library is desired.

A library of CYP102A1 and CYP102A2 chimeras may contain as little as 9% that fold properly; on average 42% will fold. In contrast, by constructing libraries in silico and using SCHEMA to guide the choice of crossover points, the percentage folded can be as high as 76%, and a very high effective level of mutation can be retained (with >50 mutations on average per folded sequence). For example, see FIG. 5, showing that particular libraries display both a high mutation number and have a large percentage of their chimeric population with E values under 30, thus demonstrating that they are most likely folded. This latter library is richer in novel functional proteins than libraries made at random. There will be greater benefits of using SCHEMA when recombining more parents or parental sequences with less sequence identity than those studied here.

In developing libraries, different P450 enzymes may be used. In one embodiment, the degree of identity between the P450 enzymes is less than 70%. In another embodiment the degree of identity between at least two of the P450 enzymes is less than 99% identity, for example, 10-30, 30-50, 50-60, 60-70, 70-90, 90-99, 30, 40, 50, 55, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 80, 90, and 95 percent identity. In another embodiment, similarity, rather than identity is used. Thus, amino acids that have similar functional characteristics (e.g., positive charges or hydrophobicity) may be freely exchanged for one another in this analysis. Of course, similarity would be determined at for the encoded for amino acid of the nucleic acid.

In one embodiment, once the libraries discussed above, or the proteins discussed below, are created, additional mutagenesis and further rounds of evolution on the proteins can be applied to create further improved proteins or proteins with alternative novel activities. Thus, in one embodiment, proteins or libraries using these determined proteins or libraries as starting material are contemplated.

B. Chimeric Protein Creation and Folding

As mentioned above, the combination of SCHEMA and recombination resulted in a high percentage of optimized chimeric P450s. Additionally, recombination, guided by the SCHEMA, yielded specific chimeras, with detectable activity on specific substrates analyzed. It also yielded chimeras that were broadly-specific enzymes that hydroxylated multiple substrates, including substrates that are novel to the parent P450s.

In order to determine the efficiency and accuracy of the library in predicting optimized P450 chimeras, several of the predicted chimera structures were generated and tested. Fourteen chimeras that encompass a broad range of E values (2 to 42) and m values (11 to 70) were chosen for construction (Table 1). Both ‘mirror’ sequences, i.e., chimeras that derive sequences from opposite parents at every position (designated by M) and the predicted sequences were generated for three of these positions. The other eleven sequences were CYP102A 1 with an internal segment derived from CYP102A2. The tested chimeras are as follows: 277-365 (SEQ ID NO: 5), 65-256 (SEQ ID NO: 6), 169-197M (SEQ ID NO: 7), 70-299 (SEQ ID NO: 8), CYP102A1 (SEQ ID NO: 2), CYP102A2 (SEQ ID NO: 4), 364-403 (SEQ ID NO: 9), 169-197 (SEQ ID NO: 10), 285-341 (SEQ ID NO: 11), 118-194 (SEQ ID NO: 12), 165-256M (SEQ ID NO: 13), 50-140 (SEQ ID NO: 14), 165-256 (SEQ ID NO: 15), 191-335 (SEQ ID NO: 16), 43-135 (SEQ ID NO: 17), and 46-73 (SEQ ID NO: 18). The swapped fragments encompass a variety of non-trivial structural elements, as seen in the three example chimeras whose structures are shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B. FIG. 2B shows the mutations mapped onto the CYP102A1 structure are the chimera residues from CYP102A 1 and CYP102A2 in dark gray and light gray, respectively (Haines et al., Biochemistry 40, 13456-13465 (2001)). FIG. 2B shows that, unexpectedly, most of the effective mutations in the chimeras (shown in white) are located on the surface of the protein.

In one embodiment, both trivial and nontrivial elements may be exchanged between parents. In another embodiment, only the nontrivial or the trivial elements can be exchanged. In one embodiment, the point of insertion of the first segment into the second segment results in a change in the chimera that is different from both parents. In another embodiment, the insertion of the second segment does not, itself, result in a new mutation at the point of insertion, but the resulting chimera has at least one amino acid mutation that makes the chimera different from both parents. In one embodiment, the mutation is different based on identity. In another embodiment, the mutation is different based on similarity.

As appreciated by one of skill in the art, the particular number of mutations that is introduced need not be limited to any number. However, as discussed herein, the larger the m value, the greater the likelihood that the chimera will have a novel functionality. Thus, in one embodiment, when such diverse functionality is desired, the protein, or library of proteins, will involve those predicted chimeras that have an m value of at least one of the following: 15, 16-20, 21, 22, 23, 24-28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41-50, 51-60, 61-75, 75-90, 90-110, and greater. In one embodiment, chimeras with an m value of 1-4, 4-6, 6-10, and 10-15 will be predicted to be functionally diverse. In one embodiment, the cutoff for the m value is determined experimentally, with the aid of the data shown in FIG. 1, for example. In one embodiment, an alteration in sequence will count towards a “m” value if the new amino acid is not identical to the old amino acid. In another embodiment, an alteration in sequence will only count towards a “m” value if the parent and final amino acid are not similar. As appreciated by one of skill in the art, the second segment of the chimera need not be inserted between sections of the first segment.

The chimeras can be created in any number of ways. For example, the chimeras can be constructed using SOEing cloned into the IPTG-inducible pCWori vector, and can be sequenced to confirm the absence of point mutations. (Horton et al., Gene 77,61-68 (1989), Barnes et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88, 5597-5601 (1991)). All proteins can be overexpressed in a catalase-free strain of E. coli, which allows the peroxygenase activity of the heme domains to be monitored directly in cell extracts. (Nakagawa et al., Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 60, 415-420 (1996), Cirino, P. C., and Arnold, F. H., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 42:3299-3301 (2003)).

Structural Determinations

Carbon monoxide difference spectroscopy was used to assess the level of structural disruption in the chimeras created. A reduced CO spectrum producing a Soret band near 450 nm is indicative of heme incorporation and thus a correctly-folded P450. (Omura et al., J. Biol. Chem 239, 2370-2378 (1964)). A Soret band near 420 nm is indicative of a P450 that is folded, but inactive due to disruption of the heme environment. (Martinis et al., Biochemistry 35,14530-14536 (1996), Wells et al., Biochemistry 31, 4384-4393 (1992)). Fourteen chimeras displayed detectable Soret bands; one appeared at 420 nm (FIG. 3, displaying the reduced CO-difference spectra for CYP102 μl, CYP102A2, and their chimeras, top left to right, CYP102A1, 364-403, 165-256, 285-341, 169-197, 118-194, 46-73, 169-197M, CYP102A2, 165-256M, 191-335, 65-256, 70-299, 277-365, 43-135, 50-140, 186-365, 186-365M, 345-448). Spectra were taken from 400 to 500 nm. The absorbance range for the first two rows is −0.5 to 0.6, the third and fourth rows are magnified 3× with a range of −0.17 to 0.2, and the last row is magnified 40× over the first row. Most chimeras exhibited a Soret band at 450:1:3 nm, characteristic of a folded P450 with correctly incorporated heme cofactor. Chimera 277-365 showed a Soret band at 420 nm, and no Soret band could be detected for chimeras 186-365, 186-365M and 345-448.

Chimeras with low calculated disruption (E value) were most likely to retain folded structures: all with E<30 were folded, but less than half with E>30 yielded detectable Soret bands (Table 1).

As appreciated by one of skill in the art, other structural determinations may be made in order to determine if a P450 chimera is properly folded. For example, crystallography or tests on functionality, as described below.

C. Analysis of the Predictive Ability of the Chimera Library for Functionality

The activity of selected chimeras from the library was examined in order to verify that the library's predictive properties were accurate. The chimeras generated from the above library, and selected for functional testing, demonstrated that the library produced many fully functional and even more fully folded proteins. Additionally, the resulting chimeras displayed surprising and unexpected properties. One specialist chimera (46-73) displayed a 6-fold higher peroxygenase activity with 2-phenoxy-ethanol than the parent most active on that substrate (CYP102A1), Table 1. Three of the chimeras displayed novel hydroxylase activity on allyloxy-benzene, which is not detectable in either of the parent enzymes. One chimera demonstrated perioxidase activity up to 40 fold of the original parent. Surprisingly, residues that appear to be functionally neutral in the parent proteins are able to confer altered properties when recombined, provided the novel sequence folds properly. More than half the folded P450 chimeras surpassed the parents in peroxidase or peroxygenase activity. In addition, nearly half of the folded chimeras had altered substrate specificities relative to the parents (FIG. 4).

FIG. 1 shows how chimera function is related to calculated disruption and effective mutations. Disruption values for all double-crossover chimeras with a minimum insert size of 10 amino acids between CYP102A 1 and CYP102A2 were determined using the structure for CYP102A1. Disruption values from the substrate-bound structure were used. For all double-crossover chimeras, the average Eis 23.5±12.8, and average mutation m is 40.6±22.6. The 17 constructed chimeras were assayed for the ability to fold and hydroxylate 12-pNCA, 2-phenoxy-ethanol and allyloxy-benzene: Squares represent chimeras that retain the ability to fold, and X's indicate those that did not. Chimeras that fold but have no detectable peroxygenase activity (□), chimeras with parent-like substrate specificity profiles (▪), chimeras with altered profiles (

larger diagonals,

thinner, more numerous diagonals), chimeras with new activity on allyloxy-benzene (

larger diagonals). The methods for testing these substrates are discussed in greater detail below and in Otey et al. (Chemistry and Biology, 11:309-318 (2004)). Among the folded chimeras, those with substrate activity profiles similar to the parents typically cluster together with lower average mutation of <m>=22 than those with altered profiles <m>=37. Thus, it appears that chimeras with higher levels of mutation, provided they fold, are more likely to have altered properties, while those with lower levels of mutation tend to be more similar to the parents. Theoretical models predict that recombination facilitates fitness changes, but there is little information on how recombination mutation level relates to functional evolution. (Cui et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 99, 809-814, (2002), Bogarad et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 96, 2591-2595 (1999)).

The probability of retaining function in the P450 chimeras decreases as calculated disruption increases. P450 chimeras with as many as 50, 61, and 70 effective mutations were still able to properly incorporate a heme cofactor, provided the chimeras were sequences with low calculated disruption (typically E<30) (Table 1). This demonstrates that E is a useful measure of the ability of a chimeric P450 to retain its structure, and that SCHEMA-calculated disruption can anticipate structural and functional conservation in a larger and more complex protein than shown previously. Taking the experimental results and disruption calculations together, it is now possible to predict that a large fraction of all double-crossover chimeras of CYP102A1 and CYP102A2 will retain their structure as the average E value of the chimeras is less than 30 (FIG. 1). Thus, in one embodiment, a library of double crossovers between CYP102A 1 and CYP102A2 is an optimized library

For most proteins sharing 63% amino acid sequence identity, a majority of the amino acid substitutions that separate them appear on the protein surface. Not surprisingly, therefore, most of the mutations in the chimeras are also found on the exterior of the protein. Such mutations are less disruptive, on average, than changes in the core. These mutations also lead to functional variations in the chimeras studied here, mutations distant from the active site alter substrate specificities and activities, as has been observed in previous random mutagenesis studies. (Zha et al., Chem. Commun. 24, 2664-2665 (2001), Zhang et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94, 4504-4509 (1997)).

Surprisingly, it was also discovered that the ‘novel’ activities on allyloxy-benzene and altered substrate-specificity profiles could not be attributed to specific residue alterations. Chimeras exhibiting similar changes in activity arose from swapping distinct polypeptides spread throughout the enzyme (FIG. 4). This illustrates that there are multiple ways to evolve functionally similar enzymes through homologous recombination.

D. Optimized Chimeric Proteins

The optimized P450 chimeras that are described within the libraries are encompassed within the present embodiments. In one embodiment, a P450 chimera is a protein with at least a segment of a sequence from one P450 protein and a second segment from a second P450 protein. When the two segments are connected, the result is a chimeric P450 protein. In one embodiment, the P450 protein is “optimized” when the E value of the combined sections is sufficiently low enough to be advantageous. Such an E value may be determined as described above, in silico, with very little effort required and as described herein. Similarly, a library is “optimized” when the members of the library have a minimal, or sufficiently low, E value. As discussed below, a “sufficiently low” value can vary depending on the circumstances.

“Sufficiently low” is defined in each situation and will depend upon the size of the desired library desired and other factors discussed herein and known to one of skill in the art; however, the appropriate E value in the above and below examples is 30. However, as can be seen in FIG. 1, the E value could be set at 40 as well. Additionally, the E value can be defined relative to other factors, such as mutation number (m value). For example, the E value can vary as a function of mutation number where higher mutation number requires a lower E number. In one embodiment, the E value or function is determined through the methods described herein to produce, for example, a graph similar to that shown in FIG. 1. In such a situation, an area on the graph may be defined as those chimeras that are optimized chimeras. In another embodiment, the E value is set as an E value equal to E values in similar functional chimeras.

In one embodiment, optimized P450 chimeras include CYP102A1/CYP102A2 chimeras with a sufficiently low E value. For example, some such proteins would be 364-403, 165-256, 165-256M, 285-341, 191-335, 169-197, 169-197M, 118-194, 70-299, 46-73, 43-135, and 50-140 wherein the numbers represent the A2 section replacing the identified section of A1, unless noted otherwise (i.e., “M” or mirrored sequences). In another embodiment, any folded P450 chimera is an optimized chimera, regardless of whether it exhibits activity on the particular substrates discussed herein, as long as the folded P450 exhibits activity on at least one substrate. For example, in this embodiment, the chimeras would include the above chimeras as well as chimeras 65-256 (SEQ ID NO: 6) and 277-365 (SEQ ID NO: 5).

In another embodiment, the chimera or library is optimized by comprising CYP102A1 and CYP102A2 chimeras. In one embodiment, the CYP102A1 and CYP102A2 proteins or libraries may have chimeras with one of or all of the following crossover positions: 364-403, 165-256, 165-256M, 285-341, 191-335, 169-197, 169-197M, 65-256, 118-194, 70-299, 46-73, 277-365, 43-135, 186-365, 186-365M, 50-140, and 345-448. A crossover position is defined as the position of transition between the first and the second protein. For example, there would be two crossover positions in each of the above constructs, for the 46-73 construct, there would be one cross over position at residue 45-46 and a second one at residue 73-74. In situations where only a single crossover number is given, the number represents the point at which the following amino acid is the other protein. Thus, 165-256 could also be represented as a crossover point at 164 and a crossover point at 256.

The P450 chimeras with the highest peroxidase and peroxygenase rates (169-197) and broadest substrate specificity (165-256) have both swapped a region of amino acids comprising the F helix. The new, favorable combination of the F helix from CYP102A2 and the G helix from CYP102A1 in chimera 169-197 and the complete substitution of the F and G helices in CYP102A1 with that from CYP102A2 in chimera 165-256 indicate a key role of this region in determining P450 catalytic properties.

In one embodiment, chimeric proteins, comprised of proteins other than the two P450 proteins, CYP102A1 and CYP102A2 are included as possible optimized P450 proteins, so long as the predicted E value of the protein is sufficiently low.

In one embodiment, the chimeras and libraries include other proteins or nucleic acids encoding proteins as well. In one embodiment, these other proteins or nucleic acids encoding proteins are fusion proteins. For example, one possible fusion protein would include a reductase from any of the parents (Gustafsson et al., Biochemistry 43:5474-5487 (2004); Munro et al., Trends Biochem. Sci. 27, 250-257 (2002)) or another P450 (Yabusaki et al., Biochimie 77:594-603 (1995); Fisher et al., Methods Enzymol 272, 15-25 (1996)). Alternatively, the other proteins can be expressed in the same culture and work as separate proteins (Miles et al., Biochem J 288 (Pt 2), 503-509 (1992)). One possible advantage of these combinations is that one can then demonstrate different properties due to the use of NADPH or NADH as an electron source rather than using the peroxide shunt pathway. The reaction can also be driven electrochemically (Estabrook et al., Methods Enzymol 272, 44-51 (1996); Fantuzzi et al., J Am Chem Soc 126, 5040-5041 (2004); Faulkner et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92, 7705-7709 (1995)).

In one embodiment, it is possible to use entire libraries or collections of optimized proteins together. Such a group may be very advantageous where individual chimeras each perform useful reactions or the group acts synergistically. By transforming with a mixture of plasmids containing all or part of the library, one can obtain a mixture of cells with a population of chimeras. The chimeric proteins can be extracted and used as a mixture of proteins, used within the cells as fusion proteins to a reductase domain, or used within the cell alongside a reductase domain expressed as a separate protein. In one embodiment, one use of such a combinatorial library as a whole is in the mobilization of oil where there exists a multitude of different aliphatic substrates. By introducing a group of diverse catalysts in the form of a combinatorial library that can chemically alter the heavy oil, one can solubilize certain substrates or create products that act as emulsifying agents. In this case, different chimeras could act on different substrates or perform chemistry at different chemical positions on any given substrate. In another embodiment, the combination is useful in bioremediation, where chemistry does not need to be specific and should just result in the breakdown of desired compounds, e.g., xenobiotics. Therefore, a group of catalysts could be introduced which assist in the degradation of these substrates using nonspecific chemistry. In another embodiment, within a whole cell, the chimeras will also act in the first catabolic step of breakdown of substrates for their use as energy or as a carbon source for further cell growth (Lamb et al., Biochem Biophys Res Commun 276:797-802 (2002)), thus proliferating the useful chimeras.

The following sections describe in more detail other characteristics of the optimized chimeric proteins and libraries thereof and how such characteristics can be examined.

Activity Assays

1. Peroxygenase Activities

The chimeras were assayed for hydroxylation of p-nitrophenoxydodecanoic acid (12-pNCA), a fatty acid analog that is hydroxylated by CYP102A1 and CYP102A2 to yield p-nitrophenolate (Schwaneberg et al., Anal Biochem 269,359-366 (1999)). Initial rates were measured using a concentration of 12-pNCA (250 μM) significantly higher than the K_(M) of CYP102A1 for this substrate (K_(M)=8.1 μM. (Li et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1545:114-121 (2001)). Activities on 2-phenoxy-ethanol and allyloxy-benzene were also determined, using the 4-aminoantipyrine (4-AAP) assay, which is sensitive to phenols and catechols (Otey et al., High-throughput screen for aromatic hydroxylation. In Directed Enzyme Evolution: Screening and Selection Methods (2003), F. H. Arnold and G. Georiou, eds. (Totowa, N.J.: Humana Press), pp. 141-148). This assay yields a detectable product if hydroxylation occurs at the ortho- or meta-positions of the aromatic ring or when hydroxylation yields the hemiacetal, which decomposes to form phenol. When hydroxylation rates for the parent CYP102 enzymes were monitored using the maximum soluble concentrations of these substrates, activity could only be detected on 2-phenoxy-ethanol. Neither parent showed activity towards allyloxy-benzene.

FIG. 4 shows the rates and substrate activity profiles for each of the folded chimeras. Chimeras were assayed for peroxygenase activity on 12-pNCA, 2-phenoxy -ethanol and allyloxy-benzene. Chimeras can be grouped into four categories: those with parent-like profiles (activity on 12-pNCA and 2-phenoxy-ethanol), those with altered profiles relative to the parents, those with detectable activity on allyloxy-benzene, and those with no detectable peroxygenase activity. Rates are reported in nmol product/nmol P450/minute. Chimeras with no detectable activity are shown with values corresponding to the detection limits, which were 0.1, 0.06, and 0.08 for 12-pNCA, 2 phenoxy-ethanol and allyloxy-benzene, respectively. Chimeras lacking detectable CO binding spectra showed no activity on the substrates assayed. The chimeras that displayed parent-like profiles—although with different level of absolute activity, include, 364-403, 165-256M, 285-341, 169-197, 118-194, 20-140. Those with no activity include 65-256 and 277-365. Those with new activity include 165-256, 191-335, and 43-135. Those with altered activity include 169-197M, 70-299, and 46-73.

Unfolded chimeras showed no catalytic activity towards any substrate, and all but two that folded retained peroxygenase activity on at least one substrate. The P420 chimera was inactive towards all substrates tested. Several chimeric enzymes were more active than the best parent, CYP102A 1, on one or more substrate. Chimera 169-197 was the most active towards 12-pNCA, 46-73 had the highest activity on 2-phenoxy -ethanol, and 43-135 and 165-256 had the highest rates on allyloxy-benzene. One chimera, (165-256) displayed broadened specificity and was active on all three substrates. The remaining two (191-335 and 43-135) showed detectable activity on 2-phenoxy -ethanol and allyloxy-benzene, but not 12-pNCA.

2. Peroxidase Activities

P450s can reduce peroxide to water (and a proton) using a mechanism similar to that of peroxidases, although the intrinsic rate for P450s is many orders of magnitude slower. (Mansuy, D., Comp Biochem Physiol C Pharmacol Toxicol Endocrinol 121, 5-14 (1998)). It has been proposed that the earliest P450 function may have been as a peroxidase. (Gotoh, O., Cytochrome P450, 2nd Edition, pp. 255-272 (1993)). To investigate how recombination affects P450 peroxidase activity, the colorimetric substrate 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) (ABTS) was used to monitor this reaction (Childs et al., Biochem J 145,93-103 (1975)). CYP102A1 and CYP102A2 heme domains both show low, but detectable peroxidase activity (Table 1). Chimeras 50-140, 118-194, 165-256 and 169-197 displayed significantly higher peroxidase activities, with 169-197 having the greatest increase (approximately 40fold higher than the most active parent). Mirror chimeras 169-197M and 165-256M did not show similarly enhanced levels of peroxidase activity. Three of the folded chimeras, 191-335, 65-256, and 277-335 showed no detectable peroxidase activity.

3. Thermostabilities

Thermostability was assayed by monitoring the loss of the Soret band at increasing temperatures. Chimera melting temperatures ranged from 36° C. to 55° (Table 1), with none more stable than CYP102A 1 (T m=55° C.). More than half of the folded chimeras were more thermostable than CYP102A2 (T m=44° C.); the rest were less stable. Chimeras that were less thermostable than the parents exhibited a wide range of E values, 12 to 27, and that stability does not correlate with calculated disruption, at least in this small population. However, thermostability may be important for retention of catalytic activity: the two chimeras that lacked peroxygenase activity were also the least thermostable.

EXAMPLES Materials for Chimera Protein Production

Enzymes for DNA manipulations were from New England Biolabs (Beverly, Mass.) and Stratagene (La Jolla, Calif.). Synthetic oligonucleotides were from Invitrogen (Carlsbad, Calif.) or the California Institute of Technology oligonucleotide facility. DNA purification kits were from Zymo Research (Orange, Calif.) and Qiagen (Valencia, Calif.). Other reagents and chemicals were from Fisher Scientific (Pittsburgh, Pa.), Becton Dickinson (Franklin Lake, N.J.) and Sigma Chemical Co (St. Louis, Mo.).

Example 1

This example demonstrates how SCHEMA calculations can be applied to a library of recombined P450 enzymes of candidate chimeras. The initial library was produced by determining all possible double crossover points for the recombination of CYP102A1 and CYP102A2, with the caveat that each segment be at least 10 amino acids in length.

The sequences of CYP102A1 and CYP102A2 were aligned using ClustalW, revealing the existence of a one-amino acid insertion relative to CYP102A1, between Q229 and S230. (Thompson et al., Nucleic Acids Res 22,4673-4680 (1994)). This insertion was ignored in the calculations. CYP102A1 residues G227 and E228 were also ignored because they are unresolved in the substrate-bound structure (1JPZ). The error values reported for E and m represent one standard deviation. Any distance between two residues greater than 4.5 angstroms was characterized as a disruption.

The number of contacts broken by the recombination (E) for each chimera was calculated using SCHEMA, using coordinates from the substrate-bound (1JPZ) and substrate-free (2HPD) structures of CYP102A1 (Voigt et al., Nat Struct Biol 9, 553-558 (2002), Haines et al., Biochemistry 40, 13456-13465 (2001), Ravichandran et al., Science 261:731-736 (1993)). Hydrogens, backbone nitrogens, backbone oxygens, and heme atoms were not included in the calculation.

The results can be seen in Table 1 and FIG. 1. As shown in the data in Table 1, various E values were generated for different crossovers. The E values varied from 2 to 42, just in the selected chimeras. Interestingly, E values did not vary to a huge degree between the substrate bound and substrate free complex. FIG. 1 displays the E and m values for all of the possible double crossover P450 chimeras. As can be observed in the figure, E values higher than 50 and m values close to 80 were observed. The average E value for all of the double crossover chimeras was 23.5±12.8 and the average m was 40.6±22.6.

Example 2

This example demonstrates how the nucleic acids encoding the chimeras generated in example 1 can be constructed. Selected chimeras were constructed using SOEing methods, as described previously (Horton et al., Gene 77,61-68 (1989)). Chimeras contained residues 1-463 from CYP102A1 or the corresponding residues in CYP102A2 (1-466). Two primers consisting of a 5′ sequence from one parent (A) and a 3′ sequence from the other (B) that encompass the crossover site were used to amplify the sequence to be inserted (B) with 25-30 b.p. overhangs from the other sequence (A).

The PCR protocol was to heat the plasmids and primers at 95° C. followed by 22 cycles of 95° C. for 1 minute, 48° C. for 1 minute, and 72° C. for 2 minutes with a final extension at 72° C. for 10 minutes. These products acted as primers in a further PCR reaction along with forward and reverse primers external to the ends of the gene containing BamHI and EcoRI restriction sites, respectively, for cloning into the pCWori vector. The PCR protocol was 95° C. for 1 minute, 46° C. for 1 minute, and 72° for 2 min for 22 cycles with a final extension at 72° C. for 10 minutes. These two products were assembled in a two-step PCR reaction: 95° C. for 1 minute followed by 14 cycles of 95° C. for 1 minute, 46° C. for 1 minute, and 72° C. for 2 minutes. External primers were added, followed by PCR 95° C. for 1 minute, followed by 14 cycles of 95° C. for 1 minute, 46° C. for 1 minute, and 72° C. for 2 minutes, with a final extension of 72° C. for 10 minutes. All PCR products were gel-purified using the Zymoclean-5 column from Zymo Research. High-fidelity Pfu Turbo and Pfu Ultra polymerases (Stratagene) were used for PCR. Final products were digested with BamHI and EcoRI and cloned into pCWori. Plasmids were transformed into a catalase-deficient strain of E. coli. The nucleic acids were then used to create the proteins described in Example 3.

Example 3

This example demonstrates how the chimeras can be expressed as protein. Chimeric P450s were expressed in catalase-deficient E. coli using the isopropyl-β-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG)-inducible pCWori vector (Nakagawa et al., Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 60, 415-420 (1996), Barnes et al., Proc Nail Acad Sci USA 88, 5597-5601 (1991)). Cultures grown in terrific broth (TB) were shaken at 250 rpm and 30° C. until they reached an OD₆₀₀ of approximately 0.8. They were induced with 0.6 mM IPTG, supplemented with 25 μg/ml thiamine and 0.5 mM δ-aminoleuvulinic acid, and grown for 20 h at 180 rpm and 25° C. This procedure yields approximately 80 mg/L of P450 protein for CYP102A1 and CYP102A2. Cultures were pelleted at 5,500×g for 15 min, resuspended in 50 mM Tris (pH 8.2), and lysed by sonification. Centrifugation was used to clear the supernatant, which was used for further assays described in the following examples.

Example 4

This Example provides one method by which folding of a P450 enzyme may be characterized. Carbon monoxide reduced difference spectroscopy was performed as reported. (Schenkman et al., In Cytochrome P450 Protocols, Volume 107, I.R. (1998), Philips and E. A. Shephard, eds. (Totowa, N.J.: Human Press, Inc.), pp. 25-33). Cell extracts were diluted into 800 μL of 100 mM Tris buffer (pH 8.2) in a cuvette at room temperature. A few mg of sodium hydrosulfite on the tip of a spatula were added, and a blank spectrum was determined from 400 to 500 nm. Carbon monoxide was bubbled in for 20 seconds at a rate of approximately one bubble per second. Two minutes were allowed to pass before a spectrum was taken. Spectra were determined at multiple times to ensure complete carbon monoxide binding and maximum absorbance. There were no increases beyond 5 minutes of incubation with carbon monoxide for any of the chimeras. P450 enzyme concentrations were quantified for further assays using an extinction coefficient of 91 mol⁻¹cm⁻¹ for the absorbance difference between 448 nm and 490 nm. The results can be observed in FIG. 3 and in Table 1. As can be seen, 14 of the 17 constructs made exhibited the correct wavelength, indicating that they were properly folded. Additionally, every protein with an E value less than 34 demonstrated characteristics typical of folded P450 enzymes.

Example 5

This Example provides one method by which peroxygenase activity of a P450 enzyme may be characterized. First order rates for p-nitrophenolate accumulation were determined using 1 μM enzyme, 20 mM H₂O₂, 250 μM 12-pNCA and 0.5% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) in 100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.2) at room temperature. Enzyme, substrate, buffer and DMSO were combined in a cuvette and zeroed at 410 nm. Reaction mixtures were incubated for 4 minutes and initiated by the addition of H₂O₂ to a final concentration of 20 mM. Initial rates were determined by monitoring the accumulation of p-nitrophenolate at 410 nm, and data from the first six seconds were used to determine initial rates. If no activity was observed at 20 mM H₂O₂, a second trial at 100 mM was done. No chimera inactive at 20 mM H₂O₂ showed activity at the higher concentration. The extinction coefficient of p-nitrophenolate is 13,200 M⁻¹cm⁻¹ (Schwaneberg et al., Anal Biochem 269:359-366 (1999)).

Rates on 2-phenoxy-ethanol and allyloxy-benzene were determined using 2 μM enzyme, 20 mM H₂O₂, 1% DMSO, and 1% acetone in 100 mM N-[2-hydroxyethyl]piperazine-N′-[3-propanesulfonic acid] (Epps) (pH 8.2) at room temperature. Substrate concentrations for 2-phenoxy-ethanol (100 mM) and allyloxy benzene (50 mM) maintained saturation. Reactions were initiated by the addition of H₂O₂ and quenched at appropriate times using an equal volume of a solution containing 4M urea and 100 mM NaOH. 120 μl of 0.6% 4-AAP was added, followed by mixing and addition of 120 μl of 0.6% potassium persulfate. Color was allowed to develop for 20 minutes before absorbance was read at 500 nm. Rates were determined from the linear region of the time course. The major products were determined by GC/MS to be the hemiacetal, which decomposes to phenol. The extinction coefficient for the 4-AAP/phenol complex was determined to be 4,800 M⁻¹cm⁻¹. The results can be seen in FIG. 4. Many of the chimeras displayed activity on 12-pNCA, 2-phenoxy-ethanol and allyloxy-benzene. Thus, the majority of those proteins that appear to have folded based on the results from Example 4, appear to be fully active P450s, and some, such as 165-256 191-335, and 43-135, appear to have gained novel activity on substrates that neither of the parents are effective upon. Additionally, the 169-197 chimera, while not gaining any novel activity, of those substrates examined, appears to have a significant increase in its ability to catalyze 12-pNCA.

Example 6

This example provides an example of how one can measure peroxidase activity. Initial rates of peroxidase activity were measured by monitoring the accumulation of the radical cation of ABTS at 414 nm (Childs et al., Biochem J., 145:93-103 (1975)). Enzyme (1 μM) was mixed with 10 mM ABTS in 200 mM phosphate buffer (pH 5.0) in a cuvette at room temperature. Samples were zeroed and reactions were initiated with the addition of H₂O₂ to a concentration of 20 mM. The absorbance at 414 nm was monitored for 5 minutes. Rates were determined from the steepest portion of the time course. An extinction coefficient of 36,000 mol⁻¹cm⁻¹ for ABTS was used.

Results can be seen in FIG. 4 and in Table 1. As can be seen from Table 1, 11 of 17 of the enzymes demonstrated peroxidase activity. Interestingly, several displayed activities that were much higher than either of the parents. For example, 165-256 had an activity at 16.1 (nmol product/nmol P450/min) and 169-197 had an activity of 100.3 (nmol product/nmol P450/min), both of these, as well as other chimeras, were much higher than the 2.6 and 0.4 of CYP102A1 and CYP102A2 respectively. Additionally, half of the P450s that lacked detectable peroxidase activity had E values above 33.

Example 7

This example demonstrates how one can measure the thermostability of a chimera. Cell extracts were heated in a thermocycler for 10 minutes at various temperatures, followed by cooling to 4° C. Extracts were centrifuged for 5 minutes at 3500×g to remove any precipitates. Carbon monoxide reduced difference spectroscopy was used to quantitate the amount of P450. The reduction of the carbon monoxide peak was monitored over a range of temperatures. The results can be seen in Table 1. As can be seen in Table 1, most of the chimeras displayed a greater thermostability than the CYP102A2 parent. However, they did not display a thermostability greater than the CYP102A1 parent.

Example 8

This example demonstrates how an optimized P450 chimera library can be generated and selected from numerous P450 libraries. This example also describes how to create optimized libraries and chimeras with three parents and with 7 crossover points. The libraries were generated in silico by randomly selecting 7 crossover points with a minimum fragment size or distance between crossovers of 20 amino acids for three P450s, CYP102A1 (SEQ ID NOS: 1 & 2), CYP102A2 (SEQ ID NOS: 3 & 4) and CYP102A3 (SEQ ID NO: 19 and SEQ ID NO: 20), and calculating every possible chimera from this set. The substrate-bound structure of CYP102A1 (1JPZ) was used to calculate the total number of contacts disrupted (E) and effective level of mutation (m) for all 3⁸ (6,561) chimeras in 5,000 libraries using CYP102A1, CYP102A2 and CYP102A3 as parents. These parental sequences all share roughly 64% amino acid identity with one another. The fraction of chimeras in each library with an E≦30, was denoted as a F₃₀ value, which reflects those that were predicted to fold based on the above information. The average effective level of mutation <m>₃₀ of this low-disruption fraction was also calculated.

Calculations were done as previously with some alterations to accommodate for three parents (Otey, et al., Chem Biol 11:309-318 (2004)):

$E = {\sum\limits_{i}^{\;}\;{\sum\limits_{j > i}^{\;}\;{C_{ij}{\Delta_{ij}.}}}}$

The contact matrix C_(ij) depends solely on structural information, while Δ_(ij) uses only the parental sequence alignment. Specifically, C_(ij)=1 if residues i and j are within 4.5 Å in the parental structure; otherwise C_(ij)=0. The delta function Δ_(ij)=0 if the amino acids σ_(i)(S_(i)) and σ_(j)(S_(j)) that are found in the chimera are also present at homologous positions in any single parent. Otherwise, the i-j interaction is considered broken and Δ_(ij)=1.

From these calculations, crossovers were selected that appeared in greater than 40% of the libraries that had a F₃₀ of greater than 25%. Thus, selecting crossover points that were common throughout libraries that had greater than at least about 25% of the population folded. This resulted in 14 crossover points. All possible combinations for chimeras of this set of 14 crossover points were then calculated. From these, a library was chosen that had 1) a high fraction folded (F₃₀=35%), 2) a high average effective level of mutation (<m>₃₀=64), and 3) crossovers spread throughout the sequence (fragment size ˜59±10 residues).

The final crossover locations lie directly after the following residues Glu64, Ile122, Tyr166, Val216, Thr268, Ala328, Gln404. This resulted in an eight fragment library that consists of 6561 possible members. The F₃₀ and <m>₃₀ values relative for the 5000 randomly generated libraries can be seen in FIG. 6. FIG. 6 also displays a selection of libraries that contain an average mutation number that is high and a high percentage of folded proteins (over 30%). The average disruption (or number of bonds broken) for the entire library was calculated as <E>=32.6±9.8 and the average number of mutations was <m>=72.6±16.6. Among those chimeras predicted, at least 35% will be folded and have mutation levels up to approximately 100 amino acid differences relative to the closest parent (see FIG. 7).

As appreciated by one of skill in the art, a high percentage of folded proteins can vary depending upon the situation. In one embodiment, anything higher than 9% is high. In another embodiment, a high percentage will be anything greater than the average percentage of folded proteins from random recombination, for example 42% in the simple A1 and A2 recombination chimeras. High may also include 5-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-50, 50-70, 70-90, 90-99, or 99-100 percent folded.

Example 9

This example demonstrates how a protein library, designed in Example 8, was constructed. The construction of the library followed methods reported previously (Hiraga and Arnold (Hiraga, K., and Arnold, F. H., J. Mol. Biol., 330:287-296 (2003)). However, instead of BaeI, BsaXI was used as the type IIb restriction endonuclease since it results in more complete DNA digestion. In short, Tag sequences were inserted at each crossover site. Upon digestion with BsaXI, each crossover has a unique nucleotide overhang sequence. These were serially ligated into a complete gene and ligated into the pCWori plasmid.

The library was transformed into a catalase free strain of E. coli that allowed for peroxygenase activity of the chimeric heme domains to be measured using cell lysates. The process can be seen in FIG. 8. The resulting chimeras were then examined in Examples 9-11.

In short, N-terminal (SCHEMA fragments 1-4) and C-terminal (SCHEMA fragments 5-8) shuffled libraries were constructed separately, and cloned together into an expression vector. Prior to the construction of parental plasmid, this BsaXI site was removed by synonymous mutation at Gly368 by site directed mutagenesis (GGA to GGT).

First, a series of tag sequences containing a type IIb endonuclease recognition sequence (BsaXI) were inserted into the three boundaries of each half-length parental gene (64, 122, and 166 for N-terminal gene, 268, 328, and 404 for C-terminal gene, according to the numbering of A1H), using the primers shown in Table 2. Targeted SCHEMA fragments were amplified using synthetic oligonucleotides that contained a tag sequence (Table 2), and these PCR fragments were then combinatorially assembled into half -length genes with tag insertions by a self-priming overlap polymerase reaction. The parental half-length genes were cloned into the cloning site of a TOPO plasmid (Invitrogen) and their DNA sequences were confirmed. All of the parental genes were inversely inserted into the plasmid to inhibit expression of the foreign protein.

Bold letters: BsaXI recognition site; underline: NheI recognition site; Lower-case letters: consensus sequence (sticky ends by BsaXI digestion); Italic letters: complemental sequence to a parent for SCHEMA gene fragment amplification; Shadowed letters: BglII or MfeI recognition site of N-terminal or C-terminal primer, respectively.

The P450s A1H, A2H, and A3H share the same amino acids at each of the targeted crossover site. Because the tag sequences were designed to encode these consensus codons at the BsaXI cleavage sites, unique 3 bp overhangs were created on the both ends of each targeted fragment upon BsaXI digestion. After removing small tags (30 bp) by column purification, the DNA fragments from three parents were mixed and ligated with each other using the 3 bp overhangs of the consensus sequences, resulting in the half-length chimeric library without tag sequences between targeted SCHEMA fragments. A NheI site designed in the inserted tag sequence along with BsaXI were used after ligation to remove residual parental genes from a final library. After the PCR amplification of the half-length library, PCR products were cloned back into the TOPO vector and transformed into TOP10. The size of the half-length library was greater than 10,000, well exceeding the possible number of combinations, 81.

The N- and C-terminal libraries were then digested with BglII/SalI, and SalI/MfeI, respectively, and cloned into BamHI/EcoRI site of an expression vector, pCWori (Barnes et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 88:5597-5601 (1991)). The SalI recognition site corresponds to the targeted crossover site 216-217 and was introduced into all three P450 genes synonymously. This site was used to ligate the N- and C-terminal libraries together, yielding the full-length chimeric library.

The library plasmid DNA was transformed into a catalase free E. coli strain SN0037 (Nakagawa, et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 60, 415-420 (1996)) followed by culturing LB media containing ampicillin.

Detailed Construction Information

BsaXI Site Removal from A1H Gene

The wild type A1H sequence has a BsaXI recognition site in the middle of fragment 7. Prior to the construction of parental plasmid, this BsaXI site was removed by synonymous mutation at Gly368 by site directed mutagenesis (GGA to GGT). The N- and C -terminal gene fragments were amplified by PCR using pWCori-A1H as a template, and the primers set A123-Nf and A1-A1107Tr (5′-CCACATCGTCACCCCAAATTGTTTTATCACGGTG-3′, SEQ ID NO: 73) for N-terminal fragment, and A1-A1107Tf (5′-CAATTTGGGGTGACGATGTGGAAGAGTTCCG-3′, SEQ ID NO: 74) and A1-Cr for C-terminal fragment. The underlined nucleotides correspond to the mutation site and the italics are complementary each other. These fragments were assembled by a second PCR. The PCR product was subcloned pCR-Blunt II-TOPO vector (Invitrogen) and transformed into TOP10. The parental plasmids were purified by QIAquick plasmid mini-prep kit (QIAGEN) and all tag-insertions were certified by DNA sequencing.

Insertion of Tag-Sequence into Targeted Sites of Parent Genes

Half length parental plasmids in which a variety of BsaXI recognition sequences were inserted into the targeted positions of each half-length P450 genes were created by step-wise assembly PCR, as described previously (Hiraga and Arnold, 2003). First, gene fragments that encode for fragments of P450s (A1H, A2H and A3H) were amplified by PCR from plasmids pCWori-A1H, pCWori-A2H, and pCWori-A3H, respectively, using a set of flanking primers listed in Table 2. A 50 μl reaction mixture contained: 1× vent DNA polymerase buffer, 0.2 mM each of dNTP, 10 pmol of each primer, 2 U of vent DNA polymerase, and 10 ng of template plasmid. Reaction mixtures was heated at 95° C. for 5 minutes, followed by 25 cycles of incubation at 95° C. for 1 minutes, 52° C. for 30 seconds, 72° C. for 30 seconds, and final incubation at 72° C. for 10 minutes.

The products were verified on and purified from Seakem GTG agarose gels (BioWhittaker Molecular Applications) by Zymoclean Gel DNA recovery Kit (Zymo Research), and resolved in 20 μl of 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.5). Next, SCHEMA fragments 1-4 and 5-8 were assembled by PCR, respectively (1234 and 5678), using complementary sequences designed in tags (Table 2). Assembly reaction of DNA fragments was carried out in 1× vent DNA polymerase buffer, 0.2 mM each of dNTP, 5 μl each of DNA fragments, 20 pmol of each primer, and 4 U of vent DNA polymerase in a total volume of 100 μl. Reaction mixtures were heated at 95° C. for 5 minutes, followed by 25 cycles of incubation at 95° C. for 1 minutes, 52° C. for 30 seconds, 72° C. 30 seconds, and final incubation at 72° C. for 20 minutes. The half-length gene fragments were purified by agarose gel extraction, and were cloned into pCR-Blunt II-TOPO vector (Invitrogen) and transformed into TOP10. The parental plasmids were purified by QIAquick plasmid mini-prep kit (QIAGEN) and all tag-insertions were certified by DNA sequencing.

Construction of Half-Length Library

The half-length gene fragments with tag insertion were amplified again by PCR from the parental plasmids described above, using M13 forward and M13 reverse primers. DNA concentration of the fragment was determined spectrophotometrically, and 2 μg of each fragment was subjected to BsaXI digestion. After purification by DNA clean and concentrator kit (Zymo Research), the digested fragments from A1-1234, A2-1234 and A3-1234, or A1-5678, A2-1234 and A3-5678, were mixed and ligated by T4 DNA ligation kit (Roche) in 10 μl reaction mix. After removal of untreated DNA fragments with Nhe I and BsaXI, the recombined half-gene libraries were amplified by PCR using M13 forward and M13 reverse. The PCR products were purified by gel extraction and cloned back into pCR -Blunt II TOPO vector and transformed into TOP10. The number of independent clones in a half-length library was estimated by counting the number of colonies. Half-length library plasmids were purified by QIA quick plasmid mini-prep-kit (QIAGEN).

Construction of Full-Length Library

The half-length libraries were digested from TOPO vector with BglII/SalI (for the library 1-4) or SalI/MfeI (for the library 5-8). After gel purification and quantification, equal amount of the half-gene library fragments were mixed and cloned both together into BamHI/EcoRI sites of the expression plasmid pCWori by ligation. Competent E. coli SN0037 (Nakagawa, et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 60, 415-420 (1996)) cells were transformed with the ligation mixture and grown overnight at 37° C. on LB agar plates containing 100 μg/ml ampicillin.

Example 9

This example demonstrates one method by which the quality of the library produced can be examined. DNA probe hybridization was performed in order to evaluate the relative amount of each parent at each position within the library (Joern, et al., J Mol Biol, 316:643-656 (2002) and Meinhold, P. et al., Methods Mol Biol, 231:177-187(2003)).

Clones from the unselected (naive) library were analyzed by probe hybridization in a macroarray format as previously described (Joern, J. M., Meinhold, P., and Arnold, F. H. J. Mol. Biol., 316:643-656 (2002)). A 384-well plate was filled with 70 μl of LB medium containing 100 μg/ml ampicillin. Independent colonies from a naive library were picked randomly and inoculated into the filled wells along with two of each parents as controls. Following overnight incubation at 30° C. 200 rpm, the plate was replicated onto 16 pieces of Hybond-N+ 7.5 cm×11.5 cm (Amersham Pharmacia) placed on LB medium plates containing 100 μg/l ampicillin, using a 384 pin replicator. After overnight growth, cells were lysed and DNA was denatured and bound to the membrane by UV-crosslinking according to the manufacturer's protocol (Amersham Pharmacia) and previous methods (Meinhold, et al., Methods Mol. Biol. 231:177-187 (2003)). Oligonucleotide probes were designed to specifically bind to each of the three parents within each of the 8 fragments approximately the same T_(m) (Table 3). The 24 probes for the libraries were obtained from QIAGEN Operon. They were labeled with fluorescein-11-dUTP using the terminal transferase reaction according to the Gene Images 3′-oligolabeling module protocol (Amersham Pharmacia). Labeled probes were hybridized to chimeric clones included in the naive library according to the Gene Images protocol. Approximately 90 ng of labeled probe was added to pre-hybridized membranes in 18 ml of hybridization buffer and incubated for two hours at 58° C. Stringency washes were carried out once in 1×SSC (0.015 mM sodium citrate, 0.15 mM NaCl, 0.1% SDS, pH 7) for 15 minutes at 53° C. The Gene Images CDP -Star detection module (Amersham) was used according to manufacturer's instruction to obtain a chemiluminescent signal.

TABLE 3 Probe set Parent Sequence (5′ to 3′) S1 A1H (SEQ ID NO: 79) GAC AAT TAA AGA AAT GCC TCA GCC AAA AAC GTT TGG A2H (SEQ ID NO: 80) GAA GGA AAC AAG CCC GAT TCC TCA GCC A3H (SEQ ID NO: 81) GAA ACA GGC AAG CGC AAT ACC TCA GCC S2 A1H (SEQ ID NO: 82) GCG CAT AAT ATC TTA CTT CCA AGC TTC AGT CAG C A2H (SEQ ID NO: 83) GCG CAC AAC ATT CTG ATG CCG ACG TTC A3H (SEQ ID NO: 84) CC CAC CGC ATT TTG CTG CCG AGT TTT AG S3 A1H (SEQ ID NO: 85) GAG CGT CTA AAT GGA GAT GAG CAT ATT GAA GTA CCG A2H (SEQ ID NO: 86) GCA AGG CTC AAC CCG AAT GAA GCA GTC A3H (SEQ ID NO: 87) G AGC CGG TTA AAC CCC AAT GAA GAA ATT GAT GTA G S4 A1H (SEQ ID NO: 88) CCA GAC GAC CCA GCT TAT GAT GAA AAC AAG C A2H (SEQ ID NO: 89) GTT CAA GAT AAG CTT ATG GTC AGA ACA AAG CGG C A3H (SEQ ID NO: 90) CTG CAA GAT AAA ATG ATG GTG AAA ACG AAG CTG CAG S5 A1H (SEQ ID NO: 91) GCA AGC GGT GAA CAA AGC GAT GAT TTA TTA ACG C A2H (SEQ ID NO: 92) GCG AAT GGA GAC CAG GAT GAA AAA GAT TTG CTC A3H (SEQ ID NO: 93) GCG AAT CCG GAT GAA AAC ATT AAG GAT CTC TTG TC S6 A1H (SEQ ID NO: 94) GCA GCA CGA GTT CTA GTA GAT CCT GTT CC A2H (SEQ ID NO: 95) GTC GAT CGG GTG CTG ACG GAT GCA G A3H (SEQ ID NO: 96) GCG GAT CGC GTG TTA ACG GAT GAC AC S7 A1H (SEQ ID NO: 97) CCA AGT GCG ATT CCG CAG CAT GCG A2H (SEQ ID NO: 98) CAG GAC CAA GTG CCT CAT CAT GCG TAC A3H (SEQ ID NO: 99) CCT TCA AGT ATC CCT CAC CAT GCG TAT AAG C S8 A1H (SEQ ID NO: 100) ATC GAA AAA AAT TCC GCT TGG CGG TAT TCC TTC AC A2H (SEQ ID NO: 101) GCC GTC ATC AGG AAG CCA TTC ATG CAG A A3H (SEQ ID NO: 102) CGC GAA AAA CAG CGG CAA TCA ATG TAC AGA G

A DNA probe that binds uniquely to each position of the library for each parent was designed resulting in 24 probes. DNA probe hybridization was performed to assess library biases. The results can be seen in FIG. 9. There were two main biases in the library. One against parent A1 at position 1 and another against parent A3 at position 8. Only one chimera had A2 at position 4. The proportion of each parent at the other positions was acceptable.

Example 10

This example demonstrates a similar method as described above for identifying chimera folding, and reveals how that E values for folded proteins can be used to determine the percent of folded proteins in a more complex library. To approximate the percent of the library that is folded, 752 randomly picked chimeras were screened using high-throughput carbon monoxide (CO) binding (Otey, C. R. High-throughput carbon monoxide binding assay for cytochromes P450. Directed Enzyme Evolution: Screening and Selection Methods. F. H. Arnold and G. Georgiou. Totowa, N.J., Humana Press: 137-139 (2003)). It was found that 36% of 752 clones assayed were folded (displayed a Soret band at 450 or 420 nm). It was found that 40 out of 50 (80%) randomly picked colonies contained an insert of the correct size as determined by digestion with BsaXI. This yielded two bands of 3.0 and 3.1 kb using DNA gel electophoresis. The presence of no insert, unremoved tag or contaminant was accounted for by this. This resulted in approximately 45% of the library with correctly sized chimeric gene inserts forming a folded protein. 89% were P450s with the remaining 11% being P420s which results in 38.6% of the library yielding a folded P450.

Additionally, chimeras were sequenced that were both folded and unfolded using DNA probe hybridization. Of 384 chimeras, 207 full length sequences were obtained. It was found that those chimeras that folded into a P450 structure (e.g., displayed a Soret peak at 450 nm) have a lower average disruption (<E>_(P450)=24.7) and mutation (<m>_(P450)=58) than those that are unfolded (<E>_(Unfolded)=34.6 and <m>_(Unfolded)=66). The average of the entire library is <E>=32.6 and <m>=72.6. Thus, even for more complex libraries of P450s, involving more than two crossovers and three parents, the E value still appears to be an accurate indicator of protein folding. This allows one to customize E values to particular chimeric conditions. This also demonstrates that while a low E value is useful in creating an optimized library, adjusting the E value in light of the above experimental data can again result in a more accurate indicator of folding and function as an E value of 24.7 will allow for the selection of about half of the properly folded chimeras.

The enrichment of folded P450s vs. unfolded proteins at lower values of E can be seen in FIG. 10. Enrichment of folded P450s at low E. The distribution of 207 folded and unfolded chimeric p450s. Normalized number of sequences represents the number of folded or unfolded chimera within each disruption bin divided by the total of the unfolded and folded sequences Importantly, no chimera with an E of less than 15 was unfolded and only one chimera with an E greater than 45 was folded.

Example 11

This example demonstrates one way that the more complex chimeras from Example 10 and libraries of these chimeras may be examined. Chimeras from Example 10 that displayed a Soret band at 450 nm (see above) were condensed onto plates to remove unfolded variants along with the addition of parental sequences for controls. This resulted in a plate consisting of 4 wells of each parent, 4 wells of a null vector control and 80 chimeras that fold into P450s (hereinafter “library plate”). These library plates were replicated and grown in 96 deep-well plates in 900 μL of LB media with 100 μg/ml ampicillin overnight at 30° C. and 250 rpm. 150 μL of this was then transferred to 850 μL of induction media (TB-media with final concentrations of 100 μg/ml ampicillin, 25 μg/ml thiamine, 0.5 mM δ-aminolevulinic acid and 0.6 mM IPTG). These were grown for 20-24 hours at 25° C. and 190 rpm, harvested by centrifugation at 5000×g for 8 minutes and frozen at −20° C. for at least 24 hours. Cells were resuspended using a pipetting robot (Multimek 96, Beckman) and lysed in 400 μL of Epps or Tris buffer (100 mM, pH 8.2) containing 0.8 mg/ml lysozyme and 2 units/mL DNaseI for 1 hour at 37° C. Plates were then spun for 8 minutes at 5000×g and 4° C. to pellet cell debris. 80 μL of lysate was transferred into 4 separate 96 well plates for each library plate. This resulted in 4 screening plates per growth plate. On one plate, high -throughput carbon monoxide spectroscopy was done in order to assess relative amounts of P450 (Otey, C. R. High-throughput carbon monoxide binding assay for cytochromes P450. In Directed Enzyme Evolution: Screening and Selection Methods, F. H. Arnold and G. Georgiou, eds. (Totowa, N.J.: Humana Press) pp. 137-139 (2003)) with 0.1 M sodium hydrosulfite being used in place of 0.4 M. The other three plates were used to assay activity on different substrates. Examples of assays that have been or could be used include the 4-AAP (Otey, C. R., and Joern, J. M. High-throughput screen for aromatic hydroxylation. In Directed Enzyme Evolution: Screening and Selection Methods, F. H. Arnold and G. Georgiou, eds. (Totowa, N.J.: Humana Press), pp. 141-148 (2003)), 12-pNCA (Schwaneberg et al., Anal. Biochem., 269:359-366 (1999), NBP assay (Alcalde, et al., J Biomol Screen, 9:141-146 (2004)), 7-ethoxyresorufin (Sieber et al., Nat Biotechnol., 19:456-460 (2001)), vivid substrate assays (Marks et al., Assay Drug Dev Technol 1, 73-81 (2002); Marks et al., AAPS PharmSci 5, E18 (2003)), and purpald assays (Peters et al., J Am Chem Soc 125:13442-13450 (2003)). Since the heme domains were being used, the hydrogen peroxide was used to drive the reactions via the peroxide shunt (Cirino, P. C., and Arnold, F. H., Advanced Synthesis & Catalysis 344, 932-937 (2002)).

The 4-AAP assay detects phenol-like compounds and consists of the addition of 40 μL of a 3.5× substrate solution (containing substrate concentrations dependent for each substrate) to 80 μL of lysate. For instance, the concentration used for 2-phenoxyethanol was 100 mM and the concentrations used for ethoxy-benzene, diphenyl ether and allyloxy-benzene were 50 mM. This resulted in the maximum substrate concentration while retaining a clear solution to accurately read the A₅₀₀, 3.5% (v/v) of both acetone and DMSO and 100 mM Epps or Tris buffer pH 8.2. Then a 7×(140 mM) H₂O₂ hydrogen peroxide solution was added resulting in a final concentration of 20 mM hydrogen peroxide. The reaction was mixed and left at room temperature without shaking for two hours and then quenched with 140 μL of 0.1 m NaOH and 4 M Urea. 38 μL of 0.6% 4-aminoantipyrine was added followed by blanking of the 96-well plate reader at 500 nm. 38 μL of 0.6% potassium persulfate was added and after 20 minutes the A₅₀₀ was read. Those with an A₅₀₀ greater than 2.5 standard deviations (based on the CV of the assay: 15%) from the average of the null vector are considered active. The endpoints of these assays reflected total turnovers and are normalized to P450 concentration using A₄₄₈-A₄₉₀ from high-throughput CO difference spectroscopy. It was found that the parents were active on three of five ‘test’ substrates.

Activity of the parent and a few example chimeras can be seen in FIG. 11 A. FIGS. 11B and 11C display the structure of the parental substrates (12-pNCA, 2-phenoxy-ethanol, and ethoxy-benzene) and the novel substrates (diphenyl ether and allyloxy -benzene) respectively. FIG. 11A demonstrates that three of the four chimeras tested for activity displayed activity on a novel substrate and one displayed activity on two novel substrates. The bars represent the chimeras' activity on 12-pNCA, 2-phenoxy -ethanol, ethoxybenzene, diphenyl ether, and allyloxy-benzene respectively. As can be observed, chimera F3791 displayed superior activity for 12-pNCA compared to any of the parent P450s. Additionally, F3748 (SEQ ID NO: 75), F37233 (SEQ ID NO: 76), and F37202 (SEQ ID NO: 77) each displayed activity that is novel over the parent chimeras. The sequence for F3791 is shown in SEQ ID NO: 78. Activity on propranolol has also been observed. Interestingly, while A3 displayed no activity towards any of the substrates tested, many of the chimeras still folded and displayed activity (see FIG. 11A).

Table 4 shows that chimeras with novel activity (on allyloxy-benzene and/or diphenyl ether) had a higher average mutation and disruption level than the folded chimeras that have been sequenced. They also had slightly lower disruption than the unfolded chimeras. This demonstrates that higher disruption and/or higher mutation levels is important in the acquisition of novel activities relative to the parental enzymes. It further demonstrates that low E values and high m values may be used to create, choose, or sort through libraries to find or create proteins with a high likelihood of functionality and novel activities.

TABLE 4 Chimera type Average mutation (<m>) Average disruption (<E>) Novel activity 73.2 ± 13.5 31.9 ± 9.0 Parent-like activity 64.4 ± 18.9 24.9 ± 9.2 No activity 63.0 ± 20.3  27.3 ± 10.7 Folded (Naïve) 57.7 ± 21.4 24.7 ± 9.3 Unfolded (Naïve) 66.3 ± 19.7 34.6 ± 8.6

Additionally, FIGS. 12A and 12B show the distribution of functional properties for sequenced chimeric cytochromes P450. Diamonds represent novel activity, squares represent parent-like activity, and triangles represent no activity. Chimeras were placed into mutation or disruption bins and then normalized to the total number of chimeras sequenced. Those with novel activity had a higher average disruption and mutation than those with any parent-like activities. They also had a higher average mutation level than the unfolded chimeras but lower average disruption.

Example 12

This example demonstrates how one may determine or verify the optimal cutoff value used in the SCHEMA algorithm. Using information theory and the high-throughput folding data for cytochrome P450, the effect of contact distance on SCHEMA disruption was evaluated. The mix of folded and unfolded sequences in the data set was quantified by its entropy H(F). The information between folding and energy I(F:E) measured how much H(F) is reduced by knowing the SCHEMA disruption E of each sequence: I(F:E)=H(F)−H(F|E), where H(F|E) was the conditional entropy. Energy functions with higher information are more effective at protein design. The maximum possible information is the entropy H(F). The information content of SCHEMA disruption had a sensitivity range of 5% (13 to 18% of H(F)) relative to changes in the contact distance from 4 to 15 Angstroms. A contact distance of 4.5 Angstroms was optimal for this data set (see FIG. 13).

In one embodiment, the chimeras are useful for a broader array of substrates, for example, tacrine, naproxen, methoxychlor, diclofenac, zoxazolamine, ethyl 4-phenylbutyrate, and the substrates in Table 5 below. In one embodiment, the substrate may be any substrate that the chimera can assist in catalyzing a reaction to a product. In another embodiment, the chimera may catalyze a reaction with any substrate that any other P450 catalyzes, as demonstrated in the Example below.

Example 13

Some substrates that are hydroxylated by mammalian P450s, many of which are pharmaceuticals, were also analyzed (Lewis, D. F. V., Guide to cytochromes P450: structure and function (London; New York: Taylor & Francis) (2001)). Enzymes that hydroxylate such substrates are interesting since the metabolites that are produced could be useful for toxicity studies (Parikh et al., Nat Biotechnol 15:784-788 (1997), Kim, D., and Guengerich, F. P., Biochemistry 43:981-988 (2004), and Guengerich, F. P., Mol Interv 3, 194-204 (2003)) or could be used to produce hydroxylated variants of existing drugs that have greater efficacy. Table 3 shows some of these substrates along with their associated mammalian P450.

TABLE 5 Compound Mammalian Concentration (A.K.A) P450¹ used (mM)² Function (mechanism) Structure Diclofenac (Voltaren) CYP2C9 10 Pain killer (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory)

4-aminobiphenyl CYP1A2 5 Found in tobacco smoke, carcinogen

Tolbutamide CYP2C9 20 Treat type II diabetes (stimulates pancreatic release of insulin)

methoxychlor CYP2B6 4 Pesticide

p-acetophenetidide (Phenacetin, Acetphenetidin) CYP1A2 10 Mild analgesic

Chlorzoxazone CYP2E1 5 Treat acute painful muscle conditions (unknown)

2-amino-5- chlorobenzoxazole (Zoxazolamine) CYP1A2 4 Muscle relaxant

9-amino-1,2,3,4- tetrahydroacridine hydrochloride hydrate (Tacrine) CYP1A2 10 Treat alzheimers (acetylcholinesterase inbibitor)

Naproxen CYP2C9 10 Pain killer (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory)

Propranolol CYP2D6 5 Beta-Adrenergic Receptor Blocking Agent

Ethyl 4- phenylbutyrate — 5 Derivative of Phenylbutyrate which treats urea cycle disorder

¹Main mammalian P450 responsible for breakdown of each compound. ²Concentration of substrate used in 4-aminoantipyrine assay.

By screening condensed libraries on the maximum substrate concentrations allowed by the 4-aminoantipyrine assay (Table 5) chimeras with putatitive activities on the following substrates: 4-aminobiphenyl, chlorzoxazone, and tolbutamide were found.

To further verify activity on the above three substrates, bioconversions were done in the presence of increasing concentration of enzyme with the relevant substrate, without the substrate and the most active parent, A1H, with the relevant substrate. Hydroxylated products were monitored with the 4-AAP assay. As expected, the amount of product increases with increasing enzyme with the chimera and substrate present but not with the chimera without substrate or A1H with substrate (FIG. 14B). FIG. 14 shows the results for chlorzoxazone. Diamonds represent a chimera reaction. Squares represent chimera without substrate, and triangles represent a A1H reaction.

Furthermore, a product peak separate from the substrate can be seen in HPLC (FIG. 14A), as measured by the 4-aminoantipyrine assay at 500 nm. This consisted of a distinct product peak at a separate retention time than the substrate not present in the no substrate reaction. The retention times were 18.69 and 20.9 minutes for the products of 4-aminobiphenyl, 6.5 minutes for chlorzoxazone and 7.54, 9.5 and 12.3 minutes for products of tolbutamide. For HPLC, 400 μL bioconversions in 100 mM Epps pH 8.2 containing cell lysate, substrate, 1% DMSO, 1% acetone and 20 mM hydrogen peroxide were allowed to progress for two hours. After acidification with 40 μL 7% perchloric acid and 10 mg of ascorbic acid, centrifugation for 5 minutes at 5000×g, 30-100 ul of the supernatants were analyzed by HPLC. Separation was achieved on a Microsorb-MV phenyl column (250×4.6 mm, Varian, Palo Alto, Calif.). Mobile phase gradients consisted of an aqueous phase containing 1% triethylamine, 0.8% by volume phosphoric acid (pH 2.2) and acetonitrile. The HPLC gradient used for metabolite separation was 25% acetonitrile in aqueous buffer for 10 minutes followed by a linear increase to 70% acetonitrile over the next 10 minutes. After an additional 2 minutes at 70% acetonitrile, it was returned to 25% acetonitrile over the next 5 minutes. The flow rate was 1 ml/min. As can be seen in FIGS. 14A and 14B, the chimeras are capable of bioconversion of additional substrates.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

All references cited herein, including patents, patent applications, papers, text books, and the like, and the references cited therein, to the extent that they are not already, are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

EQUIVALENTS

The foregoing description and Examples detail certain preferred embodiments of the invention and describes the best mode contemplated by the inventors. It will be appreciated, however, that no matter how detailed the foregoing may appear in text, the invention may be practiced in many ways and the invention should be construed in accordance with the appended claims and any equivalents thereof. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A nucleic acid library of cytochrome P450 genes that encode proteins having a first set of intramolecular amino acid contacts, wherein said proteins are derived from: a first parental cytochrome P450 gene that encodes a parental protein having a second set of intramolecular amino acid contacts; and a second parental cytochrome P450 gene, wherein less than 30 amino acid contacts differ between said first set and said second set of intramolecular amino acid contacts thereby providing genes that encode proteins with an E value of less than 30, and wherein said proteins encoded by the library of cytochrome P450 genes have enzymatic activity against a substrate, and wherein the P450 genes in the library are chimeric combinations of the first parental cytochrome P450 gene and the second parental cytochrome P450 gene, and wherein the encoded proteins have an average m value that is at least
 22. 2. The library of claim 1, wherein said P450 genes encode proteins with an enzymatic activity against a first substrate, and wherein each of said first and second parental P450 genes encodes a parental protein with an enzymatic activity against a second substrate.
 3. The library of claim 2, wherein said first and second substrates are the same substrate.
 4. The library of claim 1, wherein the proteins encoded by said genes have an increase in enzymatic activity against said substrate compared to enzymatic activity of said parental cytochrome P450 protein.
 5. The library of claim 1, wherein the proteins encoded by the library of cytochrome P450 genes have enzymatic activity against a third substrate, wherein said parental cytochrome P450 proteins do not have enzymatic activity against said third substrate.
 6. The library of claim 5 wherein the proteins encoded by the library of cytochrome P450 genes differ from said parental cyctochrome P450 proteins by sixteen or more amino acids.
 7. The library of claim 1, wherein said first parental cytochrome P450 gene and said second parental cytochrome P450 gene are at least 70% identical.
 8. The library of claim 1, wherein said P450 genes are derived from cross-over events between said first parental cytochrome P450 gene and said second parental cytochrome P450 gene.
 9. The library of claim 8, wherein said cross-over events result in at least one cytochrome P450 gene comprising at least 10 contiguous nucleotides from said first parental P450 gene.
 10. The library of claim 8, wherein said cross-over events are selected from the group consisting of: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 cross-over events.
 11. The library of claim 1, wherein said first set of intramolecular amino acid contacts is determined from the SCHEMA software program.
 12. A nucleic acid library of cytochrome P450 genes that encode proteins having a first set of intramolecular amino acid contacts, wherein said proteins are derived from: a first parental cytochrome P450 gene that encodes a protein having a second set of intramolecular amino acid contacts; and a second parental cytochrome P450 gene, wherein less than 30 intramolecular amino acid contacts are predicted to differ between said first set and said second set of intramolecular amino acid contacts thereby providing genes that encode proteins with an E value of less than 30, wherein said proteins encoded by the library of cytochrome P450 genes have enzymatic activity against a substrate, wherein the P450 genes in the library are chimeric combinations of the first parental cytochrome P450 gene and the second parental cytochrome P450 gene, and wherein said E value is defined by a SCHEMA algorithm, and wherein the encoded proteins have an average m value that is at least
 22. 13. The library of claim 1, wherein the encoded protein has an m value that is at least
 37. 14. The library of claim 1, wherein there are greater than 50mutations on average in the encoded protein.
 15. A nucleic acid library of cytochrome P450 genes that encode proteins having a first set of intramolecular amino acid contacts, wherein said proteins are derived from: a first parental cytochrome P450 gene that encodes a protein having a second set of intramolecular amino acid contacts; and a second parental cytochrome P450 gene, wherein less than 30 intramolecular amino acid contacts are predicted to differ between said first set and said second set of intramolecular amino acid contacts thereby providing genes that encode proteins with an E value of less than 30, wherein said proteins encoded by the library of cytochrome P450 genes have enzymatic activity against a substrate, wherein the P450 genes in the library are chimeric combinations of the first parental cytochrome P450 gene and the second parental cytochrome P450 gene, wherein said E value is defined by a SCHEMA algorithm, and wherein the proteins encoded by the library of cytochrome P450 genes differ from said parental cyctochrome P450 proteins by an average of 22 or more amino acids. 